DEC30023

CHAPTER 2
Upon completion of this topic, students should be able to:-

2.1 Remember Network Communications.

2.1.1 Describe the purpose of the OSI Model and each
of its layer.
2.1.2 Define specific functions belonging to each OSI Model
Layer.
2.1.3 Describe how two network nodes communicate
through the OSI Model.
2.1.4 Relate two types of addressing covered by the OSI
Model
a.Internet Protocol (IP) address
b.Media Access Control (MAC address)
2.1.5 Recognise IPv6 addressing.
PROTOCOLS

NETWORK PROTOCOL OVERVIEW

Protocol Description
Network protocols define Type
a common set of rules. Network enable two or more devices to
•Can be implemented on Communicatio communicate over one or more networks
devices in: ns
Software Network secure data to provide authentication, data
Hardware Security integrity, and data encryption
Both
Routing enable routers to exchange route
•Protocols have their own:
information, compare path information, and
Function select best path
Format
Service used for the automatic detection of devices
Rules
Discovery or services
PROTOCOLS

NETWORK PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS

•Devices use agreed-
Function Description
upon protocols to
communicate . Addressing Identifies sender and receiver
•Protocols may have Reliability Provides guaranteed delivery
may have one or Flow Control Ensures data flows at an efficient rate
functions.
Sequencing Uniquely labels each transmitted segment of
data
Error Detection Determines if data became corrupted during
transmission
Application Process-to-process communications between
Interface network applications
2.1.1 Purpose of the OSI Model
 ISO is the International Organization for Standardization.
 ISO developed a standard model for communications,
called the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model.
 Enable computer platforms across the world to
communicate openly.
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without
requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware
and software.
 The OSI model is a model for understanding and
designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust,
and interoperable.
 This model, divides network communication into 7
layers:
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)

LAYER 7: Application Layer

• Interact with software
• Services communicate between software programs
and lower-layer network services
• Network interprets application request
• Application interprets data sent from network
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)
LAYER 6: Presentation Layer
• Accept Application layer data
• Formats data to make it understandable to different
applications and hosts
• Serves as a translator and are the standards which are
involved in multimedia
• Presentation layer protocols perform the coding,
compression and also manage data encryption and
decryption
• Example : Text encoding methods ASCII and BCD,
Compression methods like JPEG and MP3
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)
LAYER 5: Session Layer
• Coordinate and maintain communications between two
nodes
• Session layer’s functions are establishing and keeping
alive the communications link for the duration of the
session
 Keep the communication secure
 Synchronizing the dialog between the two nodes
 Determining whether communications have been cut off, and,
if so, figuring out where to restart transmission and
terminating communications
• Example : Video and audio streams for a video session,
Upload or download file session.
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)
LAYER 4: Transport Layer
• Protocols in the Transport layer accept data from the Session layer
and manage end to-end delivery
• Provides flow control, segmentation, and error control
• Ensures that the data is transferred from point A to point B
reliably, in the correct sequence, and without errors
• Breaking large data units received from Session layer into multiple
smaller units called segments
• Segmentation: Segmenting is the process of breaking up messages
into smaller units. Multiplexing is the processes of taking multiple
streams of segmented data and interleaving them together.
– Segment ( Source and Destination Port Number)
Segmenting messages has two primary benefits
•Increases speed - Large amounts of data can be sent over the
network without tying up a communications link.
•Increases efficiency - Only segments which fail to reach the
destination need to be retransmitted, not the entire data stream.
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)
Primary Transport Layer Protocols:
TCP and UDP
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
- Connection oriented protocol
 the communicating devices should establish a connection before
transmitting data and should close the connection after transmitting the
data
 - Require acknowledgements from receiver to ensure data was received
correctly
- Checksum method of error checking
- Sequencing of data is a feature of TCP, this means that packets arrive
in-order at the receiver
- Three Step Process/handshake
 Request (Client sends)
 Acknowledgment (ACK)
 Client Acknowledgement (ACK)
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)
• UDP (User Diagram Protocol):
- A connectionless protocol
no overhead for opening a connection, maintaining a
connection, and terminating a connection
- Make no effort to ensure data is delivered free of errors
- The delivery of data to the destination cannot be
guaranteed in UDP.
- Faster than connection-oriented protocol
- Useful when data must be transferred quickly, such as
streaming music or video
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)
LAYER 3 : Network Layer
• Primary function of protocols at the Network layer
 Translate network addresses
 Decide how to route data
• Routes packets according to unique network device
addresses.(IP Address or Logical Address or Virtual
addresses)
• Packet ( Source and Destination IP Address)
• Routing considerations – Delivery priorities, network
congestion, quality of service, cost of alternative route
• Network Devices : Router
• TCP/IP Protocol - Internet Protocol (IP), Internet
Protocol Security (IPsec), etc.
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)
LAYER 2 : Data Link Layer

Primary function of protocols is to divide data into

distinct frames that can then be transmitted by the Physical
layer
Frame

– Structured package for moving data

- Includes raw data (payload), sender’s and receiver’s
physical addresses, error checking and control information
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)
Data Link Layer (continued)

Frames may be damaged as they pass through the

Physical layer, so the Data Link layer has error checking –
Error checking
• Frame check sequence
• CRC (cyclic redundancy check)
Data Link layer controls flow of information

– Allows NIC to process data without error

Network Devices : Switch and Bridge.
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)
• IEEE has divided the Data Link layer into
two sublayers
• Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Media Access Control (MAC)
2.1.2 The OSI Model (cont’d)
LAYER 1 : Physical Layer
Lowest, or first, layer of the OSI Model
Protocols at the Physical layer
 Accept frames from the Data Link layer
 Generate voltage so as to transmit signals at the NIC
• Copper transmission medium – Signals issued as voltage
• Fiber-optic cable transmission medium – Signals issued as light
pulses
• Wireless transmission medium – Signals issued as
electromagnetic waves
Example : Twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber, wireless,
or other transmission media.
Network Device : Hub and Repeater
Applying The OSI Model
2.1.3 Two network nodes communicate
through the OSI Model.

The OSI model is a theoretical

representation of what happens between two
nodes communicating on a network.
Every process that occurs during network
communications can be associated with a
layer of the OSI model, so you should be
familiar with the names of the layers and
understand the key services and protocols
that belong to each.
• Each layer has a different data structure,
called a Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
• PDUs are relevant in relation to each of
the first 4 layers of the OSI model as follows:
• The Layer 1 (Physical Layer) PDU is the bit or,
more generally, symbol (can also be seen as
"stream")
• The Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) PDU is the frame
• The Layer 3 (Network Layer) PDU is the packet
• The Layer 4 (Transport Layer) PDU is the segment
for TCP, or the datagram for UDP
• Encapsulation
• Occurs in each layer
• Process of wrapping one layer’s PDU with
protocol information
When Data Passes from Host A to Host B
Application, Presentation and Session layer
take user input and converts it into data
Transport layer adds a segment header
converting the data into segments
Network layer adds a network header and
converts the segments into packets
Data Link layer adds a frame header
converting the packets into frames
MAC sublayer layer converts the frames
into a bits which the Physical layer can put
on the wire.
• At each layer of the OSI Model, some information
is added to the original data
When the bits stream arrives at the
destination (Host B):

Physical layer takes it of the wire and

converts it into frames.
Each layer will remove their
corresponding header while the data flows
up the OSI model until it is converted
back to data and presented to the user.
2.1.4 Relate two types of addressing
covered by the OSI Model.
Addressing is a system for assigning
unique identification numbers to devices
on a network.
Each node has two types of addresses.

2 Types of Address
1. Internet Protocol (IP) Address
2. Media ccess Control (MAC) Address
Internet Protocol (IP) Address
IP addresses follow a hierarchical addressing
scheme and can be assigned through operating
system software.
Also called network layer addresses, logical
addresses, or virtual addresses.
Assigned to each host by a network
administrator based on the local network
IP addresses contain two parts:

1. local network.
2. individual host
Media Access Control (MAC) Address
 The MAC sublayer, the lower sublayer of the Data
Link layer, manages access to the physical medium.
 Also known as a Physical address or a Data Link
layer address. Sometimes, it’s also called a
hardware address
 On a host, the MAC address does not change; it is
physically assigned at the factory and stored in the
host NIC. The physical address remains the same
regardless of where the host is placed on the
network.
•MAC addresses/ physical addresses like
00-30-48-82-11-BD
– Block ID
• 00-30-48
• Identifies the vendor
– Device ID
• 82-11-BD
• Different for each NIC from the same vendor

•If two NICs have the same MAC address, they

have problems networking
– This can happen with cheaply made
refurbished NICs, or with copied virtual machines
2.1.5 Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)
 IPv6 is Internet Protocol (IP) used for carrying data in
packets from a source to a destination over various
networks.
 IPv6 is the enhanced version of IPv4 and can support
very large numbers of nodes as compared to IPv4. It
allows for 2128 possible node, or address, combinations.
 IPv6 is also known as Internet Protocol Next Generation
(IPng)
 IPv6 was developed in hexadecimal format and contains
8 octets to provide large scalability.
 IPv6 (cont..)
 IPv6 addresses are 128-bit IP address written in
hexadecimal and separated by colons. Eg:-
3ffe:1900:4545:3:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf
 IPv4 and IPv6 networks are not directly interoperable,
which means that a transition mechanism is needed in
order to permit hosts on an IPv4 network to
communicate with hosts on an IPv6 network, and vice
versa.
 Transition mechanism:

eg:6in 4 tunneling, NAT64, 6RD, DS Lite

https://www.ripe.net/support/training/videos/ipv6/transition-mechanis
ms
6in 4 tunneling

6in4 is a tunneling technique.

You can manually set up a 6in4
tunnel

NAT64

NAT64 is a transition mechanism

based on Network Address
Translation (NAT) that makes it
possible for IPv6-only hosts to talk
to IPv4-only servers. NAT64 can be
useful for mobile providers.
DS Lite

DS-Lite allows an ISP to give

access to IPv4-only services for
customers that have only native
IPv6. This mechanism could be
useful for DSL or cable providers.

6RD
6RD is a tunneling technique in
which
the IPv4 and IPv6 addresses
come from the Internet Service
Provider (ISP). Some ISPs offering
DSL or cable services are
implementing 6RD to connect
their customers over IPv6
QUESTION

State the layer that provide services to a user.

Nyatakan lapisan yang menyediakan perkhidmatan kepada
pengguna (CLO1, C1)
ANS.
A. Application Layer
B. Session Layer
C. Presentation Layer
D. Network Layer

ANS : A.
QUESTION
Describe Layer 3 and layer 4 in OSI model.
Tafsirkan lapisan 3 dan lapisan 4 dalam mode OSI; (CLO1, C3) (5 marks)

ANS.
Layer 3 – Network Layer (1m)
 Establishes network connections; translates network address into their
physical counterarts and determines routing(1m)
 and determines routing(0.5m)

Layer 4 – Transport (1m)

 Ensures accurate delivery of data through flow control, segmentation and
reassembly
 error correction and acknowledgement (0.5m)
QUESTION

Describe Layer 2 and layer 3 in OSI model.

Tafsirkan lapisan 2 dan lapisan 3 dalam mode OSI; (CLO1, C3) (5 marks)
ANS.
Layer 2 – Datalink (1m)
 Packages data in frames appropriate to network transmission method
(1.5m)

Layer 3 – Network Layer (1m)

 Establishes network connections; translates network address into their
physical counterarts and determines routing(1m)
 and determines routing(0.5m)
Upon completion of this topic, students should be
able to:-

2.2 Understand a Local Wired Network.

2.2.1 Explain MAC address of a host using
ipconfig/all command.
2.2.2 Identify logical address of a computer
2.2.3 Identify IP address of a computer.
2.2.1 MAC address
Every Ethernet network interface has a
physical address assigned to it when it is
manufactured.
This address known as Media Access
Control (MAC) address. It identify each
source and destination host on the
network.
To find the MAC Address on a Windows 7 or 10 :

Step 1
1)Open the Windows Command Prompt.
2)Click the Start menu. Type Command
Prompt in the search box and press Enter.
3)Click on the Command Prompt, displayed in
the search results.
Step 2:
1)Enter the ipconfig /all command at the command
prompt.
2)Press Enter. (Typical results are shown in the
following figure, but your computer will display
different information.
Upon completion of this topic, students should be able to:-

2.3 Understand basic concept of internet connection

2.3.1 Explain Internet Service Provider (ISPs)

2.3.2 Associate relationship between ISP and internet.
2.3.3 Discuss the available type of connections provided by
ISP
2.3.4 Categorized appropriate ISP level of service to meet
user requirement
2.3.5 Relate the relationship between IoT and Internet
 Internet????
The Internet is a worldwide collection of computer
networks, cooperating with each other to exchange
information using common standards.
Through telephone wires, fiber optic cables, wireless
transmissions and satellite links, Internet users can
exchange information in a variety of forms.
The Internet is a network of networks that connects
users in every country in the world. There are currently
over one billion Internet users worldwide.
2.3.1 Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
 An ISP is a company that provides the connections and
support to access the Internet.
 It also provide additional services such as Email and web
hosting.
No one gets on the Internet without a host computer, and
no one gets on the Internet without going through an ISP.
ISPs range in size from small to very large and differ in
terms of the area they service.
 ISPs also differ in the types of connection technologies
and speeds they offer.
2.3.2 The ISPs Relationship with the internet
Individual computers and local networks connect to
the ISP at a Point of Presence (POP).
A POP is the connection point between the ISP's
network and the particular geographical region that the
POP is servicing.
Note: POP-Point of interconnection between the
communication facilities provided by the telephone
company and the main distribution facility of the
building
An ISP may have many POPs depending on its size
& the area it services.
Within an ISP, a network of high-speed routers and
switches move data between the various POPs.
Multiple links interconnect the POPs to provide
alternate routes for the data should one link fail or
become overloaded with traffic and congested.
ISPs connect to other ISPs in order to send
information beyond the boundaries of their own
network.
The Internet is made up of very high-speed data links
that interconnect ISP POPs and ISPs to each other.
 These interconnections are part of the very large,
high capacity network known as the Internet
Backbone.
HOW ISPs HANDLE PACKETS
 Before being sent on the Internet, messages are divided into
packets.
 IP packet size is between 64 to 1500 bytes for Ethernet
networks, and contains mostly user data.
 Downloading a single 1 MB song would require over 600
packets of 1500 bytes.
 Each individual packet must have a source and destination IP
address.
 When a packet is sent across the Internet, the ISP determines
whether the packet is destined for a local service located on
the ISP network, or a remote service located on a different
network.
Every ISP has a control facility for their network,
known as the Network Operations Center (NOC).
The NOC usually controls traffic flow and houses
services such as email and web hosting.
The NOC may be located at one of the POPs or at a
completely separate facility within the ISP network.
Packets looking for local services are usually
forwarded to the NOC and never leave the ISP
network.
Routers in each of the ISP POPs use the destination
address of the IP packets to choose the best path
through the Internet.
The packets you send to the ISP POP are forwarded
by routers through the ISP's network and then
through the networks of other ISPs.
They pass from router to router until they reach their
final destination.
Packets travel through the internet by
using ping and traceroute
The traceroute utility traces the route from source to
destination.
Each router through which the packets travel is
referred to as a hop.
 Traceroute displays each hop along the way and the
time it takes for each one
 If a problem occurs, the display of the time and the
route that the packet travelled can help to determine
where the packet was lost or delayed.
 The traceroute utility is called tracert in the
Windows environment.
2.3.3 The most common types of
internet connections include:
•DSL (digital subscriber line)
•dial-up or analogue
•cable broadband
•fibre optic broadband
•wireless or Wi-Fi broadband
•satellite and mobile broadband
•dedicated leased line
Dial-up access is cheap but slow. This analog
signal is converted to digital via the modem and
sent over a land-line serviced by a public telephone
network. The lines regularly experience
interference and this affects the speed, anywhere
from 28K to 56K. Since a computer or other device
shares the same line as the telephone, they can’t
be active at the same time

It is an internet connection that is always “on”. This

uses 2 lines so your phone is not tied up when your
computer is connected. There is also no need to
dial a phone number to connect. DSL uses a
router to transport data and the range of connection
speed, depending on the service offered, is
between 128K to 8 Mbps.

Cable provides an internet connection through a cable

modem and operates over cable TV lines. There are
different speeds depending on if you are uploading
data transmissions or downloading. Since the coax
cable provides a much greater bandwidth over dial-up
or DSL telephone lines, you can get faster access.
Cable speeds range from 512K to 20 Mbps.
 SATELLITE
1.Satellite accesses the internet via a satellite in
Earth’s orbit.
2.In the rural hinterlands sometimes Satellite
Internet service is your only option. It provides a
way to get online, but with significant limitations,
like peak hour data limits and relatively slow
speeds.
3.Satellite connection speeds are around 512K to
2.0 Mbps.

DEDICATED LEASED LINE

1.Provides a private fixed bandwidth point-
to-point data connection.
2.It's used to connect offices to the
Internet, and to link offices to other offices
3.It's perfect for business use.
FIBER INTERNET SERVICE
1.Transmitted over fiber-optic lines
2.Capable of download speeds in the 1 Gbps range.
3.High cost of installing fiber-optic cables continues to slow the wider
availability of Fiber internet service.

WIRELESS OR WI-FI BROADBAND

1.Does not use telephone lines or cables to connect to the internet - it uses
radio frequency.
2.Wireless is also an always on connection and it can be accessed from just
about anywhere.
3.Speeds will vary, and the range is between 5 Mbps to 20 Mbps
2.3.4 : ISP LEVELS OF SERVICE
 ISP LEVELS OF SERVICE
Various services available depending on the ISP and
the connection technology such as
Virus Scanning-Scan for malicious code both on
files that have been uploaded from end user and
those arriving.
Content Filtering-Used to block objectionable
and/or offensive web sites.
Video on demand-Real-time downloading also
known as streaming video.
Connection speed-Download speed vary from
56kbps to 1.5Mbps or higher depend on
technologies such as DSL & cable modem.
 Email accounts-ISPs generally provide multiple
user emails on one account. Email addresses can
be distributed among individuals or used to
separate business mail from personal mail.
 Personal Homepage-Usually both the size of the
web space & the traffic generated are limited.
Design & maintain by individual author.
 Web Hosting-Offered by ISP to the
organization. Always come with design &
maintenance services.
 File Storage-Online storage with 24/7 access.
Size range from a few megabytes to terabytes &
include password protected.
 DATA TRANSFER
Data transfer process refer to downloaded and
uploaded.
Downloading refers to information coming from the
Internet to your computer.
Uploading indicates the reverse path, from your
computer to the Internet.
When the download transfer rate is different from the
upload transfer rate, it is called asymmetric.
When the transfer rate is the same in both directions, it
is called symmetric
Asymmetric:
Most commonly used for the home.
Download speeds are faster than upload speeds.
Necessary for users that download significantly
more than upload.
Most Internet users, especially those who use
graphics or multimedia intensive web data,
need lots of download bandwidth
Symmetric:
Most commonly used for business or individuals
hosting servers on the Internet.
Used when necessary to upload large amounts of
traffic such as intensive graphics, multimedia, or
video.
It can carry large amounts of data in both directions
at equal rates.
2.3.5 : IOT AND INTERNET

IoT ( Internet of Things) is a collection of physical objects that are

designed with built in wireless or wired connectivity, so they can be
monitored, controlled and linked over the Internet via a mobile app or
software that uses with another platform.

The Internet of Things extends internet connectivity beyond traditional

devices like desktop and laptop computers, smartphones and tablets
to a diverse range of devices and everyday things that utilize
embedded technology to communicate and interact with the external
environment, all via the Internet.
 IOT vs INTERNET
The content in the traditional Internet is consumed by request; one
has to ask a query, issue a search or send a request for a web service
1 in order to consume the content. In the IoT, the content is typically
consumed through pushing the technology as a notification or
triggering an action when a situation of interest is detected.

In the traditional Internet, the connection is done through physical

2 links between web pages. In the IoT, the combination of data is
required for situation detection

In the traditional Internet, the value resides in answering a question

that is posed by the consumer, in many cases when searching for
3 information or activating services. In the IoT, the value is timely action
or notification based on detected situations

The traditional Internet is a mature technology; it has standards in

4 various areas and search engines that one can communicate with
using natural languages. (It can be done by everybody without the
need of any technical skills). In the IoT domain, data integration is
done ad hoc and requires skilled programmers in order to implement
an application.
2.3.4 packets travel through the internet by
using ping and traceroute

The ping utility tests end-to-end connectivity between

source and destination.
It measures the time that it takes test packets to make a
round trip from the source to the destination and
whether the transmission is successful.
However, if the packet does not reach the destination,
or if delays are encountered along the way, there is no
way to determine where the problem is located.
UNDERSTAND NETWORK
SERVICES
Upon completion of this topic, students should be able to:-

2.4 Understand Network Services.

2.4.1 Describe Domain Name Service (DNS).
2.4.2 Relate ping command, a browser and nslookup to
identify the relationship between domain names and IP
addresses.
2.4.3 Explain DNS in a LAN
2.4.4 Describe email protocols in clients and server : SMTP,
POP3 and IMAP4.
2.4.1 DNS (Domain Name System)
• TCP/IP addressing
– Long, complicated numbers
– Good for computers
• People remember words better
– Internet authorities established Internet node naming system
• Host – Internet device
• Host name – Name describing device

• Domain
– Group of computers belonging to same organization
– Share common part of IP address
• Domain name
– Identifies domain (loc.gov)
– Associated with company, university, government organization •
Fully qualified host name (jasmine.loc.gov)
– Local host name plus domain name
DNS (cont..)
• Label (character string)
– Separated by dots
– Represents level in domain naming hierarchy
• Example: www.google.com
– Top-level domain (TLD): com
– Second-level domain: google
– Third level domain: www
• ICANN approved over 240 country codes
• Host and domain names restrictions
– Any alphanumeric combination up to 63 characters
– Include hyphens, underscores, periods in name
– No other special characters
 Name servers (DNS servers)
• Servers that contain databases of associated names, IP addresses
• Provide information on request
– To convert names like www.ccsf.edu into IP addresses like
147.144.1.212
• This process is called name resolution
• Large organizations
– Often maintain two name servers
• Primary and secondary
– Ensures Internet connectivity
• Each device must know how to find server
– Automatically by DHCP
Nslookup
– Query DNS database from any network computer
• Find the device host name by specifying its IP address
– Verify host configured correctly; troubleshoot DNS
resolution problems
 PING (Packet Internet Groper)
• Provides verification
– TCP/IP installed, bound to NIC, configured correctly,
communicating with network
– Host responding
• Uses ICMP services
– Send echo request and echo reply messages
• Determine IP address validity
• Ping IP address or host name
• Ping loopback address: 127.0.0.1
– Determine if workstation’s TCP/IP services running
 Browser

– a web browser is a web client

• Web client is an application (e.g. Internet Explorer, Firefox,
Chrome, Safari, Opera)
– running on a local device (desktop, notebook, cell phone)
– used to interact mainly with Web servers
•Web server software (e.g. Apache, IIS, NGINX, Lighttpd)
used to deliver content and most of times it runs on servers
located in data centers
Web Clients and Web Servers
When a web client receives the IP address
of a web server, the client browser uses
that IP address and port 80 to request web
services. This request is sent to the server
using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP).

When the server receives a port 80 request,

the server responds to the client request
and sends the web page to the client.
 FTP Clients and Servers
 The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) provides an easy
method to transfer files from one computer to another.
 A host running FTP client software can access an FTP
server to perform various file management functions
including file uploads and downloads.
 The FTP server enables a client to exchange files
between devices.
 To accomplish this, the FTP service uses two different
ports to communicate between client and server.
 Requests to begin an FTP session are sent to the server
using destination port 21. Once the session is opened,
the server will change to port 20 to transfer the data
files.
 FTP client software is built into computer operating
systems and into most web browsers.
2.4.3 DNS in LAN

1. The browser contacts a DNS server to get the IP address.

2. A DNS server would start its search for an IP address by
contacting one of the root DNS servers.
• The root servers know the IP addresses for all of the DNS
servers that handle the top-level domains
(.COM, .NET, .ORG, etc.). It can answer the request with
an IP address because it already knows the IP address for
the requested domain.
• It can contact another DNS server and try to find the IP
address for the name requested. It may have to do this
multiple times.
• It can return an error message because the requested
domain name is invalid or does not exist.
DNS(cont..)

1. There are multiple DNS servers at every level, so that if

one fails, there are others to handle the requests. The
other key is caching.
2. Once a DNS server resolves a request, it caches the IP
address it receives.
3. Once it has made a request to a root DNS server for
any .COM domain, it knows the IP address for a DNS
server handling the .COM domain, so it doesn't have to
bug the root DNS servers again for that information.
DNS servers can do this for every request, and this
caching helps to keep things from bogging down.
2.4.4 Describe email protocols in clients and server : SMTP, POP3 and IMAP4.

Email Clients and Servers

E-mail – Most frequently used Internet services
Email servers run server software that enables them to
interact with clients and with other email servers over the
network.
– Communicate with other mail servers
– Deliver messages, send, receive, store messages
•Mail clients
– Send messages to; retrieve messages from mail server
Various application protocols used in processing email
include SMTP, POP3, IMAP4.
Email Clients and Servers (cont.)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 Used to send email
– From one mail server to another
 SMTP is used by an email client to send messages to its local
email server. The local server then decides if the message is
destined for a local mailbox or if the message is addressed to a
mailbox on another server.
 If the server has to send the message to a different server,
SMTP is used between the two servers as well.
 Operates at Application layer
 Administrator must specify SMTP server name
- Such as smtp.gmail.com
 Email Clients and Servers (cont.)

Post Office Protocol,version 3 (POP3)

 Current, popular version

 A server that supports POP clients receives and stores
messages addressed to its users.
 When the client connects to the email server, the
messages are downloaded to the client. By default,
messages are not kept on the server after they have
been accessed by the client.
 Advantages – Minimizes server resources • Mail
deleted from server after retrieval
 Disadvantage for mobile users – Mail server, client
applications support POP3
Email Clients and Servers (cont.)
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP4)

 A server that supports IMAP clients also receives and

stores messages addressed to its users. However, it keeps
the messages in the mailboxes on the server, unless they are
deleted by the user.
 More sophisticated alternative to POP3
 IMAP4: current version
 Advantages
– Replace POP3 without having to change e-mail programs
– E-mail stays on server after retrieval
 Good for mobile users
Port Numbers
 Ports are broken into three categories and range in number
from 1 to 65,535. Ports are assigned and managed by an
organization known as the Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers (ICANN).

Well- Known Ports

 Destination ports that are associated with common network
applications are identified as well-known ports. These ports
are in the range of 1 to 1023.

Registered Ports
 Ports 1024 through 49151 can be used as either source or
destination ports. These can be used by organizations to
register specific applications such as IM applications.

Private Ports
 Ports 49152 through 65535, often used as source ports.
These ports can be used by any application.
QUESTION
4. Name the TCP/IP protocol that is used for transferring
electronic mail messages from one machine to another
Namakan protokol TCP/IP yang digunakan untuk
memindahkan pesanan mel elektronik daripada satu
mesin ke mesin yang lain (CLO2, C1)

ANS.
A. FTP
B. SMTP
C. SNMP
D. UDP

ANS : B.
Addressing Schemes
Upon completion of this topic, students should be able to:-

2.6 Apply Addressing Schemes for TCP/IP suite.

2.6.1 Interpret addressing scheme of TCP/IP: TCP/IP
classes, binary and dotted decimal notation,
subnet mask.
2.6.2 Interpret Public and Private IP address.
2.6.3 Interpret Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast addresses.
2.6.4 Relate how IP addresses are obtained:
a. Static addresses
b. Dynamic addresses
2.6.1 addressing scheme of TCP/IP: TCP/IP
classes, binary and dotted decimal notation,
subnet mask.
An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a
unique number, used by computers to refer to
each other when sending information through
the Internet.
Represented by a 32-bit binary number written
as four octets.
Octet (8 bits) ● Octet (8 bits) ● Octet (8 bits) ● Octet (8 bits)
22222222 ●22222222 ●22222222 ●22222222
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

11000000 ● 00000101 ● 00100010 ● 00001011

EQUALS
192 ● 5 ● 34 ● 11
IP Address (cont.)
The maximum decimal value of each octet is
255.
Those bits, from left to right, have decimal
values of 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1. Added, they
total 255.
The largest 8-bit binary number is 11111111.
An IP address has a network number and a host
number, and uses dotted-decimal notation.
 Class A
Support extremely large networks
First octet of Class A IP address recognize with
range 1 to 127. (127.0.0.0
( network, is reserved for
loop back addresses.)
Class A IP addresses use only the first 8 bits (1
octet) to identify the network part of the address.
The remaining three octets (24 bit) can be used for
the host portion of the address.
Example of Class A IP address : 124.95.44.15
Class B
Support the needs of moderate to large sized
networks.
Class B IP network addresses always have
values ranging from 128 to 191.
Class B IP addresses use the first 16 bits (2
octets) to identify the network part of the
address.
The two remaining octets of the IP address can
be used for the host portion of the address.
Example of Class B IP address: 151.10.13.28
 Class C
 This address space was intended to support a small
network.
 Class C IP network addresses always have values
ranging from 192 to 223.
 Class C IP addresses use the first 24 bits (3 octets)
to identify the network part of the address.
 Only the last octet of a Class C IP address can be
used for the host portion of the address.
 Example of a Class C IP address : 201.110.213.28
 Class D
- Multicast
 Class E
- Experimental use / used for research / Reserved for future
 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255:

- Reserved for IP protocol testing and troubleshooting. Virtual

interfaces such as loopback adaptor use this IP range for
addressing.
 0.0.0.0

- This is the first IP address of IP addresses. It represents all

networks.
 255.255.255.255

- This is the last IP address of IP addresses. It represents all hosts.

2.6.2 Public and Private IP Address

Public IP Address
 Allhosts that connect directly to the Internet require a
unique public IP address.
 Public IP addresses obtained from an Internet service
provider (ISP) or a registry at some expense
 A private IP Address

 Home routers have their local address set to a default, private IP

address number. It's usually the same address for the other models
from that manufacturer, and it can be seen in the manufacturer's
documentation.
 Is a network where only authorized users have access to the data.
 not routed on the Internet backbone
 Connecting a network to the Internet requires translating the private
addresses to public addresses.
– Network Address Translation (NAT).
– A router usually performs NAT
• NAT is a process in which your router changes your private IP Address into
a public one so that it can send your traffic over the Internet, keeping track
of the changes in the process.
• When the information comes back to your router, it reverses the change—
from a real IP address into a private one—and forwards the traffic back to
your computer.
• IANA reserves the following IP address blocks for use as private IP
addresses
• The IP addresses provide an entirely separate set of addresses that
allow access on a network but without taking up a public IP address
space.
• 169.254.0.1 to 169.254.255.254
- This is the Automatic Private IP Addressing
(APIPA) range of addresses assigned
automatically when a computer's
unsuccessful getting an address from a
DHCP server
**With APIPA, DHCP clients can obtain IP address even when
DHCP servers are not functional.
QUESTION
Give an examples of IPV4 IP address for class A, B and C.
Berikan satu contoh alamat IP IPV4 utk kelas A,B dan C (CLO1, C1) (3 marks)

ANS.
 Class A : 10.56.1.2 (1m)
 Class B : 128.16.0.2 (1m)
 Class C : 192.168.1.2 (1m)

QUESTION
Nrtwork class Beginning Octet

A
B
C
QUESTION
Internet Protocol(IP) address is an address of a computer or other network
device on a network using TCP/IP. There are FIVE(5) classes of available IP
ranges. Complete Table 1 below with suitable answers. (CLO2, C3) (7 marks)

Dotted decimal BInary notation Class Subnet Mask

notation of IP

128. 12. 15. 10 255. 255. 0. 0

1101 0110 . 1111 0101. 0111 0110. 0000 C

0011
75.45.34.78

QUESTION
What is the class of the following addresses?(CLO2, C3)(2m)

IP address Method

10011101.10001111.11111100. 11001111
QUESTION
Refer to figure below, complete the table with suitable answers. (CLO2, C3)(7m)

ANS.

Hardware Class of IP IP address Subnet Mask

PC 1
PC 2
Router - 192. 168. 1. 1
QUESTION
manage your own IP address to make sure all the connection is successful. (CLO2, C3)(7m)

Hardware IP address Subnet Mask Default Gateway

Makmal Komp 1 255. 255. 255 .0 192. 168. 1. 1
Makmal Komp 2 255. 255. 255 .0
Makmal Baikpulih 255. 255. 255 .0
Mkml Hypermedia 255. 255. 255 .0 192. 168. 3. 1
Mkml Rangkaian 1 255. 255. 255 .0
Mkml Rangkaian 2 255. 255. 255 .0
ISP 1 255. 255. 255 .0
ISP 2 255. 255. 255 .0
2.6.3 Unicast, Multicast and
Broadcast Addresses
Unicast Address
A packet with a unicast destination
address is intended for a specific host.
The IP address and MAC address
combine to deliver data to one specific
destination host.
Broadcast Address
 The packet contains a destination IP address with
all ones (1s) in the host portion.
 This means that all hosts on that local network
(broadcast domain) will receive and look at the
packet.
 A Class B network of 172.16.0.0, with a default
mask of 255.255.0.0, has a broadcast of
172.16.255.255.
 On Ethernet networks, the broadcast MAC
address is 48 ones displayed as Hexadecimal FF-
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF.
 Many network protocols, such as ARP and DHCP
use broadcasts.
Multicast Address
 Multicast addresses allow a source device to send a
packet to a group of devices.
 Devices that belong to a multicast group are assigned a
multicast group IP address. The range of multicast
addresses is from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.
 Since multicast addresses represent a group of addresses
(sometimes called a host group), they can only be used
as the destination of a packet. The source will always
have a unicast address.
 The multicast MAC address is a special value that
begins with 01-00-5E in hexadecimal.
 Examples of where multicast addresses would be used
are in remote gaming, where many players are
connected remotely but playing the same game. Another
example would be distance learning through video
conferencing, where many students are connected to the
same class.
QUESTION
With the aid of diagrams, differentiate between Broadcast and Multicast
Berikan satu contoh alamat IP IPV4 utk kelas A,B dan C (CLO1, C2) (5 marks)

ANS.
BROADCAST MULTICAST
Static
Manually configure the network
information for a host.
Its includes the host IP address, subnet
mask and default gateway.
Useful for printers, servers and other
networking devices that need to be
accessible to clients on the network.
Modify client workstation TCP/IP
properties
Dynamic
 IP addresses assigned automatically and it is
done using a protocol known as Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
 Assigned to device upon request Changeable
 DHCP automatic assignment of addressing
information such as IP address, subnet mask,
default gateway, and other configuration
information.
 Requires DHCP service on DHCP server
DHCP advantages :
 Saves time spent assigning IP addresses
 Prevents accidental duplicate IP addresses
 Allows users to move devices (like laptops)
without having to change their TCP/IP
 DHCP is generally the preferred method of
assigning IP addresses to hosts on large networks
since it reduces the burden on network support
staff and virtually eliminates entry errors.
 Another benefit of DHCP is that an address is
not permanently assigned to a host but is only
leased for a period of time. If the host is powered
down or taken off the network, the address is
returned to the pool for reuse. Reasons to Use
DHCP configuration