The Nervous System

THE
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
OUTLINE
• Organization of the Nervous System
• Sensory Receptors and Neuronal Circuits
• Somatic Sensations
Anatomy
NERVOUS SYSTEM DIVISION
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
NEURON: The Functional Unit
SENSORY
• information enters the central
nervous system through peripheral
nerves and is conducted immediately
to multiple sensory areas in
• (1) the spinal cord at all levels
• (2) the reticular substance of the
medulla, pons, and mesencephalon of
the brain
• (3) the cerebellum
• (4) the thalamus
• (5) areas of the cerebral cortex
MOTOR
• Motor Part of the Nervous System
• Effectors- most important role of
the nervous system is to control
various bodily activities.
This is achieved by controlling:

a) Contraction of appropriate
skeletal muscles
b) Contraction of smooth muscles in
internal organs
c) Secretion of chemical substances
by exocrine and
d) endocrine glands
MOTOR
• skeletal muscles can be
controlled from many levels of
the central nervous system,
including
• (1) the spinal cord
• (2) the reticular substance of the
medulla, pons, and
mesencephalon
• (3) the basal ganglia
• (4) the cerebellum
• (5) the motor cortex
General Design of the Nervous System
• Processing of Information- “Integrative Function

of the Nervous System
a. Channeling and processing of information
b. Approximately 99% of sensory information is

filtered out and considered irrelevant and
unimportant by the nervous system
• Role of Synapses in Processing Information
a. Some synapses transmit info from one neuron to

another with ease, and others with difficulty
b. Facilitatory and inhibitory signals from other areas
of the nervous system can control synaptic
transmission
c. Synapses perform a selective action, often blocking
weak signals and allowing strong signals to pass
but sometimes select and amplify certain weak
signals
• Storage of Information (Memory)
a. Information stored for future control of motor

activities and for use in the thinking process is
stored in the cerebral cortex
b. Facilitation-each time a synapse transfer info, the

synapses become more and more capable
Major Levels of CNS Function
• Spinal Cord Level
a. A conduit for information to travel from the

periphery of the body to the brain and vice versa
b. Can cause walking movements
c. Withdrawal reflexes
d. Reflexes that stiffen the legs to support the body

against gravity
e. Reflexes that control local blood vessels, G.I.

movements, and urinary excretion
• Lower Brain or Subcortical Level
a. Control of most of the “subconscious” activities
b. Arterial pressure and respiration
c. Control of equilibrium
d. Feeding reflexes
e. Many emotional patterns (anger, excitement,

sexual response, reaction to pain and pleasure)
• Higher Brain or Cortical Level
a. Cerebral cortex is an extremely large memory

storehouse
b. Never functions alone but in association with

lower centers of the nervous system
c. Essential for most thought processes

CNS Synapses
• Types of Synapses
a. Chemical
1. Almost all of the synapses in the CNS
2. First neuron secretes a neurotransmitter
3. Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the
second neuron (excites, inhibits, or modifies
its sensitivity
CNS Synapses (cont.)
• Types of Synapses
b. Electrical
1. Have direct open fluid channels that conduct
electricity from one cell to the next
2. Have gap junctions which allow the movement
of ions
3. Very few in the CNS but are the predominant
type in the periphery of the body (i.e. skeletal
muscle and smooth muscle contraction)
• “One-Way Conduction at Chemical Synapses
a. Always transmit signals in one direction (from the

pre-synaptic neuron (releases neurotransmitter) to
the post-synaptic neuron
b. Called the principle of one-way conduction
c. Allows signals to be directed toward specific goals

• Physiologic Anatomy of the Synapse
Fig. 45.5 Typical anterior motor neuron, showing pre-synaptic

terminals on the neuronal soma and dendrites
• Physiologic Anatomy of the Synapse
a. Presynaptic terminals may be either stimulatory or

inhibitory
b. (Fig. 45.5) Neurons in other parts of the spinal cord
and brain differ from the anterior motor neuron in:
1. Size of the cell body

2. Length, number, and size of the dendrites
3. Length and size of the axon
4. The number of presynaptic terminals
• Presynaptic Terminals
Fig. 45.6 Physiologic anatomy of the synapse

• Neurotransmitter Release From the Presynaptic Terminal
a. The membrane of the presynaptic terminal contains

large numbers of voltage gated Ca channels
b. When the membrane depolarizes, the channels open and
Ca ions flow into the terminal
c. Quantity of transmitter released is directly related to the
amount of Ca that enters
d. Ca binds with special proteins called release sites which
open and allow the transmitter to diffuse into the
synaptic cleft
• Action of the Neurotransmitter
a. The postsynaptic membrane contains receptor proteins

that have two components:
1. A binding part that protrudes outward and binds the

neurotransmitter, and
2. An ionophore part that passes through to the interior
of the postsynaptic neuron
3. The ionophore is either an ion channel or a second
messenger activator
• Ion Channels- two types
a. Cation- most often allow Na ions to pass, but sometimes

K, and Ca also; lined with negative charges which attract
cations but repel anions; opened by excitatory transmitters
b. Anion- when channels are large enough, Cl ions pass

through (cations are hydrated and too large); opened
by inhibitory transmitters
• Second Messenger Systems- the alpha

component of the
• G protein performs one of four
functions:
a. Opening specific ion channels

through the post-synaptic membrane
b. Activation of cAMP or cGMP
c. Activation of one or more cellular

enzymes
d. Activation of gene transcription

• Excitatory Receptors in the Postsynaptic Membrane
a. In excitation: the opening of Na channels to allow

large numbers of + electrical charges to flow to the
interior. This raises the membrane potential toward
threshold (most widely used method of excitation)
b. In excitation: depressed conduction through chloride

or potassium channels or both; decreases the diffusion
of Cl to the inside or K to the outside which makes the
membrane potential more positive
c. Metabolic changes to excite cell activity, increase

excitatory receptors or decrease inhibitory receptors
• Inhibitory Receptors in the Postsynaptic Membrane
a. Opening of chloride channels allowing the rapid influx

of ions which causes the membrane potential to become
more negative, and therefore inhibitory
b. Increase in conductance of potassium ions out of the

neuron allowing positive ions to diffuse to the outside
causing increased negativitiy, and therefore inhibitory
c. Activation of receptor enzymes that inhibit metabolic

functions or increase the number of inhibitory receptors
or decrease the number of excitatory receptors
Types of Neurotransmitters
• Small Molecule, Rapidly Acting Transmitters
Table 45.1
Class I Class II: Class III: Class IV

The Amines Amino Acids
Acetylcholine Norepinephrine GABA Nitric Oxide
Epinephrine Glycine
Dopamine Glutamate
Serotonin Aspartate
Histamine
Types of Neurotransmitters
• Neuropeptide, Slow Acting Transmitters or Growth Factors
Hypothalamic Pituitary Peptides-Act on Gut and Peptides- Act on From Other Tissues
Releasing Peptides Brain Gut and Brain
Hormones
Thyrotropin RH ACTH Leucine enkephalin Insulin Angiotensin II
Leutinizing HRH Beta-endorphin Methionine enkephalin Glucagon Bradykinin
Somatostatin Alpha-MSH Substance P Carnosine
Table 45.2 Prolactin Gastrin Sleep peptides
LH CCK Calcitonin
Thyrotropin VIP
GH Nerve growth factor
Vasopressin Brain derived

neurotropic factor
Oxytocin Neurotensin
Electrical Events During Excitation
• Resting Membrane Potential (-65 mV for a

spinal motor neuron)
Fig. 45.8
Fig. 45.9 Three states of a

neuron
• Generation of APs in the Initial Segment
a. Axon hillock
b. The membrane has 7x the voltage gated Na

channels as does the membrane of the soma
c. Threshold is about -45 mv (Fig. 45.9)

Electrical Events During Inhibition
• Effect of Inhibitory Synapses on the Postsynaptic

Membrane—Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential
a. Inhibitory synapses open mostly Cl- channels
b. As the chloride ions enter, the membrane

potential becomes more negative (toward -70 mV)
c. Opening K channels allows the positive ions to move

out; with the Cl, this causes a hyperpolarization
d. Causes an IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential)

• Presynaptic Inhibition
a. Release of an inhibitory substance onto the outside

of the presynaptic nerve fibrils (usually GABA)
b. Opens anion channels, allows Cl to diffuse inward
c. Negative charges cancel much of the excitatory effect
d. Occurs in many sensory pathways

• Spatial Summation- stimulation of many

presynaptic terminals; the effects can summate
until neuronal excitation occurs
• Temporal Summation- successive discharges from

a single presynaptic terminal; if they occur
rapidly enough, they also summate
• Simultaneous Summation of IPSPs and EPSPs-

the two effects either completely or partially
nullify each other
• Facilitation of Neurons
a. Occurs when the summated postsynaptic potential is

excitatory but has not reached the threshold
b. Another excitatory signal can then excite the

membrane quite easily
• Special Functions of Dendrites for Exciting Neurons
a. Large spatial field of excitation of the dendrites- 80-95%

of all presynaptic terminals of the anterior motor neuron
terminate on dendrites
b. Most dendrites cannot transmit APs but they can

transmit signals by ion conduction of the fluids in
cytoplasm
General Principles and Sensory
Physiology
Types of Sensory Receptors and Their Stimuli
• Mechanoreceptors- detect mechanical compression

or stretching
• Thermoreceptors- detect changes in temperature
• Nociceptors- pain receptors (damage to tissues)
• Electromagnetic receptors- detect light on the retina
• Chemoreceptors- detect taste, smell, oxygen level,

osmolality, etc.
(See Table 46.1 in the text)

Types of Sensory Receptors and Their Stimuli
• Differential Sensitivity of Receptors
a. Each receptor type is highly sensitive to one type

of stimulus for which it is designed
b. Non-responsiveness to other types of sensory

stimuli
c. Pain receptors do not respond to usual touch or

pressure but will become active when the stimuli
become severe enough to damage the tissues
Fig. 46.1 Several types of somatic sensory nerve endings
Transduction of Sensory Stimuli into Nerve Impulses
• Local Electrical Currents at Nerve Endings—

Receptor Potentials
a. Mechanisms of receptor potentials
1. Mechanical deformation of the receptor which

stretches the membrane and opens channels
2. Application of a chemical to the membrane
3. Change of the temperature of the membrane
4. Effects of electromagnetic radiation
• Local Electrical Currents at Nerve Endings—

Receptor Potentials
b. Maximum receptor potential amplitude (100 mV)
c. Relation of the receptor potential to APs –the more

the receptor potential rises above the threshold
level, the greater becomes the AP frequency
Fig. 46.2 Typical relation between receptor potential and action potentials when the
receptor potential rises above threshold
• Receptor Potential of the Pacinian Corpuscle
Fig. 46.3 Excitation of a sensory nerve fiber by a receptor potential

produced in a Pacinian corpuscle
• Mechanism of Receptor Adaptation- different for

each type of receptor
a. In the mechanoreceptor the initial compression

causes the receptor potential which disappears
within a fraction of a second even though the
compression continues
b. Accommodation- slower adaptation and occurs in

the nerve fiber itself; the tip of the nerve gradually
becomes “accommodated” to the stimulus
• Tonic Receptors (Slow Adapting)
a. Continue to transmit impulses as long as the stimulus

is present; include the following:
1. Macula receptors in the vestibular apparatus

2. Pain receptors
3. Baroreceptors of the arterial tree
4. Chemoreceptors of the carotid and aortic bodies
• Phasic Receptors (Rapidly Adapting)- also called

“rate receptors,” and “movement receptors”
a. Stimulated only when the stimulus strength changes
b. React strongly while a change is actually taking place
c. Cannot be used to transmit a continuous signal

• Importance of Phasic Receptors- have a predictive

function
• General Classification of Nerve Fibers
a. Type A- large and medium sized myelinated fibers

of spinal nerves (alpha, beta, gamma, delta)
b. Type C- small, unmyelinated fibers that conduct at

low velocities
Transduction of
Sensory Stimuli
into Nerve
Impulses
Fig. 46.6 Physiologic classification and

functions of nerve fibers
Transmission of Signals of Different Intensity in Nerve Tracts
• Spatial Summation- increased signal

strength by using progressively larger
numbers of fibers; stronger signals
spread to more and more fibers (Fig.
46.7)
• Temporal Summation- increased
signal strength by increasing the
frequency of nerve impulses in each
fiber (Fig. 46.8)
Transmission of Signals of Different Intensity in Nerve Tracts
• Spatial Summation- increased signal

strength by using progressively larger
numbers of fibers; stronger signals
spread to more and more fibers (Fig.
46.7)
• Temporal Summation- increased
signal strength by increasing the
frequency of nerve impulses in each
fiber (Fig. 46.8)
Transmission and Processing of Signals in Neuronal Pools
• Threshold and Sub-threshold Stimuli
a. The discharge of a single excitatory presynaptic

terminal almost never causes an action
potential in a postsynaptic neuron
b. Instead, large numbers of input terminals must

discharge on the same neuron either at the same
time or in rapid succession to cause excitation
• Threshold and Sub-threshold Stimuli
Fig. 46.10 “Discharge” and “Facilitated” zones of a neuronal pool

• Inhibition of a Neuronal Pool
a. Some incoming fibers inhibit neurons, rather than

excite them
b. This is the opposite of “facilitation” and is called
the “inhibitory zone”
• Divergence of Signals
a. Amplifying-an input signal spreads to an

increasing number of neurons as it passes
through successive orders of neurons in its
path
b. Divergence in multiple tracts- the signal is

transmitted into two directions from the
pool; information transmitted up the dorsal
column from the spinal cord takes two
courses
1) into the cerebellum, and
2) on through the lower regions of the brain to
the thalamus and cerebral cortex
• Convergence of Signals- signals from multiple

inputs uniting to excite a single neuron
a. Convergence from a single source-

multiple terminals from a single
incoming fiber tract terminate on the
same neuron
b. Convergence from input signals

(excitatory or inhibitory) from multiple
sources
Allows the summation of information from

different sources
• Neuronal Circuit with both Excitatory

and Inhibitory Output Signals
a. Sometimes an incoming signal

causes an excitatory signal going
in one direction and an
inhibitory signal going elsewhere
b. Reciprocal inhibition circuit in

some reflexes
• Prolongation of a Signal by a Neuronal Pool-

“Afterdischarge”
a. Synaptic Afterdischarge- when excitatory synapses

discharge on a dendrite or on the soma, a postsynaptic
electrical potential develops in the neuron and lasts for
msec
b. As long as the potential lasts, it will continue to excite the

neuron, causing it to transmit a continuous train or output
impulses
• Reverberatory (Oscillatory) Circuit
a. Caused by positive feedback

within the neuronal circuit that
feeds back to re-excite the input
of the same circuit
• Continuous Signal Output from Some

Neuronal Circuits
a. Continuous discharge caused by

intrinsic neuronal excitability
b. Continuous signals emitted from

reverberating circuits
General Organization, the
Tactile and Position Senses
Classification of Somatic Senses
• Mechanoreceptic Somatic Senses- include both tactile

and position sensations stimulated by mechanical
displacement
• Thermoreceptive Senses- detect heat and cold
• Pain Sense- activated by factors that damage tissues

Other Classifications of Somatic Senses
• Exteroreceptive Sensations- from the surface of the body
• Proprioceptive Sensations- relating to the physical state

of the body (position, tendons, muscles, equilibrium)
• Visceral Sensations- sensations from the internal organs
• Deep Sensations- come from the deep tissues (fascia,

muscles, and bone)
Detection and Transmission of Tactile Sensations
• Interrelaitons Among the Tactile Sensations of Touch,

Pressure, and Vibration- three principle differences
a. Touch sensation generally results from stimulation of

tactile receptors in the skin or s.c. tissues
b. Pressure sensation generally results from deformation

of deeper tissues
c. Vibration sensation results from rapidly repetitive

sensory signals
• Tactile Receptors
a. Free nerve endings- found everywhere in the skin and in

many other tissues; can detect touch and pressure
b. Meissner’s Corpuscles- touch receptor with great sensitivity;

elongated, encapsulated nerve ending of a large myelin-
ated nerve fiber; present in the non-hairy areas of the skin
(i.e. the fingertips)
• Tactile Receptors (cont.)
c. Merkel’s discs- expanded tip tactile receptor; transmit an

initially strong but partially adapting signal and then a
continuing weaker signal that adapts slowly; found in the
hairy parts of the skin; often grouped together in a “Iggo
dome receptor”
Fig. 47.1 Iggo dome receptor containing multiple layers of

Merkel’s discs connected to a single large
myelinated nerve fiber
d. Hair end organ- touch receptor around each hair;

movement and initial contact with the body
e. Ruffini’s endings- multibranched encapsulated, adapt

slowly; prolonged touch and pressure sensations;
found in joint capsules
Sensory Pathways for Transmitting Somatic Signals into the CNS
• Dorsal Column- Medial Lemniscal System
a. Touch sensations requiring high degree of localization

b. Touch sensations requiring transmission of fine
gradations of intensity
c. Phasic sensations, such as vibratory sensations
d. Sensations that signal movement against the skin
e. Position sensations from the joints
f. Pressure sensations related to fine degrees of
judgment of pressure intensity
• Anterolateral System
a. Pain
b. Thermal sensations, both warm and cold
c. Crude touch and pressure
d. Tickle and itch sensations
e. Sexual sensations
• Anatomy of the Dorsal Column
Fig. 47.2
• Anatomy of the Dorsal Column
Fig. 47.3
Fig. 47.4
• Somatosensory Cortex
Fig. 47.5 Structurally distince areas, called Brodmann’s areas of the

human cerebral cortex
• Somatosensory Cortex
a. Sensory signals from all modalities terminate just

posterior to the central fissure
b. Anterior half of the parietal lobe-reception and
interpretation of somatosensory signals
c. Posterior half of t he parietal lobe-provides still
higher levels of interpretation
d. Visual signals terminate in the occipital lobe
e. Auditory signals terminate in the temporal lobe
f. Anterior to the central fissure is the motor cortex
• Somatosensory Areas I and II
Fig. 47.6 Two somatosensory cortical areas; I and II

• Spatial Orientation of Signals from Different Parts of

the Body in Area I
Fig. 47.7 Sensory homunculus

• Layers of the Somatosensory Cortex and Their Function
a. Incoming sensory signal excites layer IV first; signal

spreads toward the surface and also deeper layers
b. Layers I and II receive diffuse nonspecific input signals
c. Neurons in II and III send axons to related portions of
the cerebral cortex and to the opposite hemisphere via
the corpus callosum
d. Neurons in V and VI send axons to deeper parts of the
nervous system
• Sensory Cortex is Organized in Vertical Columns
a. Each column detects a different sensory spot on the

body with a specific sensory modality
• Functions of Somatosensory Area I-bilateral excision

cause the following types of sensory judgement:
a. Person is unable to localize discretely the different

sensations in different parts of the body; can
localize the sensations crudely
• Functions of Somatosensory Area I
b. Person is unable to judge critical degrees of pressure

against the body
c. Person is unable to judge the weights of objects
d. Person is unable to judge shapes or forms of objects
e. Person is unable to judge texture of materials

• Somatosensory Association Areas
a. Brodmann’s Areas 5 and 7- play an important role in

deciphering deeper meanings of the sensory information
b. Receives information from somatosensory area I, ventro-

basal nuclei of the thalamus, other areas of the thalamus,
visual cortex, and the auditory cortex
• Effect of Lateral Inhibition- increases the degree of

contrast in the perceived spatial pattern
a. Virtually every sensory pathway, when excited, gives

rise simultaneously to lateral inhibitory signals
b. Importance of lateral inhibition is that it blocks the

lateral spread of excitatory signals and therefore,
increases the degree of contrast in the sensory pattern
perceived in the cerebral cortex
c. In the dorsal column lateral inhibition signals occur at

each synaptic level
• Transmission of Rapidly Changing and Repetitive

Sensations- dorsal column can recognize changing
stimuli that occur in as little as 1/400 of a second
• Vibratory Sensation- rapidly repetitive and can be

detected up to 700 cycles/second
• Position Senses (Proprioceptive Senses)- two subtypes:

(1) static position sense, and (2) rate of movement
sense (kinesthesia or dynamic proprioception)
a. Knowledge of position depends on knowing the degrees

of angulation of all joints in all planes and their rates of
change
b. Multiple different types of receptors are used:
1. Deep receptors
2. Corpuscles
3. Muscle spindles, etc.
• Processing of Position Sense Information- thalmic

neurons responding to joint rotation are of two
types:
a. Those maximally stimulated when the joint is at

full rotation
b. Those maximally stimulated when the joint is at

minimal rotation
Transmission of Less Critical Sensory Signals in the
Anterolateral
Pathway
• Anterolateral Pathway
a. Transmits sensory signals that do not require highly

discrete localization or discrimination of fine
gradations of intensity
1. Pain
2. Heat and cold
3. Crude tactile
4. Tickle and itch
5. Sexual sensations
Anterolateral
Pathway
• Anatomy of the Anterolateral Pathway
Fig. 47.13
Anterolateral
Pathway
• Characteristics of Transmission
a. Velocity of transmission is 1/3 of that of the dorsal column

b. Degree of spatial localization of signals is poor
c. Gradations of intensities are less accurate
d. Ability to transmit rapidly changing or repetitive
signals is poor
Anterolateral
Pathway
• Segmental Fields of
Stimulation—Dermatomes
Pain, Headache, and
Thermal Sensations
Pain is a Protective Mechanism
• Pain
a. Most, if not all, ailments of the body cause pain
b. Pain occurs when tissues are being damaged,

and it causes the individual to react to remove
the stimulus
Types of Pain and Their Qualities
• Fast Pain
a. Also called sharp pain, pricking pain, acute pain,

and electric pain
b. Felt within o.1 sec after the stimulus is applied
c. Not felt in most deeper tissues of the body

• Slow Pain
a. Also called slow burning pain, aching pain,

throbbing pain, nauseous pain, and chronic pain
b. Felt only after one second or more and then

increases slowly over many seconds or even minutes
c. Usually associated with tissue destruction
d. Can lead to prolonged, almost unbearable suffering

• Pain Receptors and Their Stimulation
a. Pain receptors are free nerve endings; widespread

in the superficial layers of the skin and certain
internal tissues (periosteum, arterial walls, joint
surfaces, falx and tentorium in the cranial vault)
b. Types of Stimuli
1. Mechanical
2. Thermal
3. Chemical
• Pain Receptors and Their Stimulation (cont.)
c. Fast pain is elicited by mechanical and thermal

d. Slow pain by all three types
e. Chemicals include: bradykinin, serotonin, K ions,
histamine, acids, AcH, proteolytic enzymes
f. Prostaglandins and substance P enhance the
sensitivity but do not directly excite them
• Non-Adapting Nature of Pain Receptors- adapt very

little, and sometimes not at all
• Rate of Tissue Damage as a Stimulus for Pain
a. Pain resulting from heat is closely correlated with

the rate at which damage to the tissues is occurring
and not with the total damage that has already
occurred
b. Intensity of pain is also closely correlated with the
rate of tissue damage from causes other than heat
(bacterial infection, tissue ischemia, tissue
contusion, etc.)
• Importance of Chemical Pain Stimuli During

Tissue Damage
a. Bradykinin thought to be the agent most responsible

for causing pain following tissue damage
b. Intensity of pain felt correlates with local increase in

K ion concentration or increase in proteolytic
enzymes
• Tissue Ischemia as a Cause of Pain
a. When blood flow is blocked, the tissue often

becomes very painful and the greater the rate of
metabolism, the more rapidly the pain occurs
b. May be due to the large accumulation of lactic

acid as well as bradykinin and proteolytic
enzymes
• Muscle Spasm as a Cause of Pain
a. Results partially from the direct effects of muscle

spasm in stimulating mechanosensitive pain
receptors
b. Also the indirect effects of muscle spasm to compress

blood vessels and cause ischemia
c. Spasm increases the rate of metabolism making the

relative ischemia even greater
Dual Pathways for Transmission of Pain Signals
• Dual Pain Pathways
a. Neospinalthalmic Tract
1. Tract for fast pain

2. Most terminate in the thalamus
3. Fast pain is localized more exactly
4. Glutamate is the primary neurotransmitter
Dual Pathways for Transmission of Pain Signals
• Dual Pain Pathways
b. Paleospinothalamic Pathway
1. Transmission of slow-chronic pain

2. Substance P is the main neurotransmitter
3. Projects into the brain stem and thalamus
4. Localized only to a major part of the body
Pain Suppression
• Pain Suppression- analgesia system has

three components
a. Periaqueductal gray and

periventricular areas of
mesencephalon and pons
b. Raphe magnus nucleus in the pons
and the nucleus reticularis in the
medulla
c. Pain inhibitory complex in the dorsal
horns of the spinal cord
Pain Suppression
• Transmitter Substances
a. Enkephalin-cause both pre- and post-synaptic

inhibition of incoming pain fibers
b. Serotonin-released from the dorsal horn and causes

the release of enkephalin
Pain Suppression
• Brain’s Opiate System
a. Endorphins
b. Enkephalins
Referred Pain
• Mechanism
Fig. 48.5 Mechanism of referred pain and referred hyperalgesia

Thermal Sensations
• Thermal Receptors and Their Excitation
a. Thermal gradations are perceived by 3 types of

receptors: cold, warm, and pain
b. Cold and warm are located at discrete spots
immediately under the skin
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THE

This is achieved by controlling:

• Processing of Information- “Integrative Function

a. Channeling and processing of information

b. Approximately 99% of sensory information is

• Role of Synapses in Processing Information

a. Some synapses transmit info from one neuron to

• Storage of Information (Memory)

a. Information stored for future control of motor

b. Facilitation-each time a synapse transfer info, the

• Spinal Cord Level

a. A conduit for information to travel from the

b. Can cause walking movements

d. Reflexes that stiffen the legs to support the body

e. Reflexes that control local blood vessels, G.I.

• Lower Brain or Subcortical Level

a. Control of most of the “subconscious” activities

b. Arterial pressure and respiration

e. Many emotional patterns (anger, excitement,

• Higher Brain or Cortical Level

a. Cerebral cortex is an extremely large memory

b. Never functions alone but in association with

c. Essential for most thought processes

• “One-Way Conduction at Chemical Synapses

a. Always transmit signals in one direction (from the

b. Called the principle of one-way conduction

c. Allows signals to be directed toward specific goals

• Physiologic Anatomy of the Synapse

Fig. 45.5 Typical anterior motor neuron, showing pre-synaptic

• Physiologic Anatomy of the Synapse

a. Presynaptic terminals may be either stimulatory or

1. Size of the cell body

Fig. 45.6 Physiologic anatomy of the synapse

• Neurotransmitter Release From the Presynaptic Terminal

a. The membrane of the presynaptic terminal contains

• Action of the Neurotransmitter

a. The postsynaptic membrane contains receptor proteins

1. A binding part that protrudes outward and binds the

• Ion Channels- two types

a. Cation- most often allow Na ions to pass, but sometimes

b. Anion- when channels are large enough, Cl ions pass

• Second Messenger Systems- the alpha

a. Opening specific ion channels

b. Activation of cAMP or cGMP

c. Activation of one or more cellular

d. Activation of gene transcription

• Excitatory Receptors in the Postsynaptic Membrane

a. In excitation: the opening of Na channels to allow

b. In excitation: depressed conduction through chloride

c. Metabolic changes to excite cell activity, increase

• Inhibitory Receptors in the Postsynaptic Membrane

a. Opening of chloride channels allowing the rapid influx

b. Increase in conductance of potassium ions out of the

c. Activation of receptor enzymes that inhibit metabolic

• Small Molecule, Rapidly Acting Transmitters

Class I Class II: Class III: Class IV

Thyrotropin RH ACTH Leucine enkephalin Insulin Angiotensin II

Leutinizing HRH Beta-endorphin Methionine enkephalin Glucagon Bradykinin

Somatostatin Alpha-MSH Substance P Carnosine

Table 45.2 Prolactin Gastrin Sleep peptides

GH Nerve growth factor

Vasopressin Brain derived

• Resting Membrane Potential (-65 mV for a

Fig. 45.9 Three states of a