Civil-Military Relations in Pakistan:

Irfan Waheed Usmani

G.C. University Lahore
What are Civil-military Relations: definitions

 Civil-military relations are those interactions

between military and civilian actors that in
some way relate to the power to make
political decisions.
 The questions around which the study of Civil-
Military relations revolves.
 “Who guards the guardians of the nation?”

 Real issue: the question of civilian supremacy.

 The Civil-Military relations are those
interactions between military and civilian
actors that in some way relate to the power
to make political decisions.
(Aurel Croissant and David Kuehn, “ Civilian
Control of Military and Democracy:
Conceptual and Theoretical Perspectives”.
The questions around, which the study of Civil-Military relations,
revolves.

 Traditionally, the study of civil-military relations

is levitated around the questions of who is
master and who is servant in civil-military
relations and who “guards the guardians of the
nation”.
 The real issue in the civil military relations: In
other words the question of civilian supremacy
is at the heart of the civil-military relations.
 We can assess them as a scale of /one
should view civil-military relations as a scale
of “political decision-making power” which
offsets civilian governments from military.
(the next slide)
Assessing the Civil-Military relations as the scale of “Political Decision-making Power”
The Definition of Civilian Control
 ▪Civilian control is not a fact but a process...
 ▪We can conceptualize civilian control as a
set of decision-making areas. (Kohn)
 ▪ “The point of civilian control is to make
security subordinate to the larger purposes
of a nation, rather than the other way
around. The purpose of military is to
defend society not to define it”.
The Notion of Civilian Control
▪Civilian control is not a fact but a process...
▪We can conceptualize civilian control as a set
of decision-making areas. (Kohn)
▪ “The point of civilian control is to make
security subordinate to the larger purposes of
a nation, rather than the other way around.
The purpose of military is to defend society not
to define it” ( the point to be remembered:……)
The Order of Slides(not required)
 (1) Looking at the field: The streams of scholarship on the civil-military
relations in Pakistan [I]
 (2) Looking at the Field: The Streams of scholarship on civil-military
relations [II]
 (2) Understanding civil-military relations: a useful conceptual frameworks
 (3) A Typology of Civil-Military Relations
 (4) The main reasons behind strains in the civil-military relations in
Pakistan
 (5) How to improve the civil-military relations in Pakistan: Some
Suggestions [I]
 (6) How to improve the civil-military relations in Pakistan: Some
Suggestions [II]
Looking at the Field: The Streams of scholarship on civil-
military relations[I](not required)
 Two kinds of studies have engaged the theme of
preatorianism. The works of Hamza Alavi [1966;1972,and
1983];Hasan Askari Rizvi [1974/1987, and 1984];Ayesha
Jalal[ 2007]; Mazhar Aziz [2008], and Aqil Shah[2014],
explain the reasons behind praetorianism.
 The other analyzes the impact of praetorianism on the
state and society. The works of Hasan Askari Rizvi[2000];
Stephen P.Cohen Ayesha Siddiqa Ahga[2007]; and Ishtiaq
Ahmed[2013] represent this trend of scholarship on
military.
Looking at the Field: (not required)The Streams of scholarship on
civil-military relations [II]( not required)

 The works of Stephen P.Cohen[2005] and Aqil Shah[2014]

explain military politics in Pakistan from the perspective of
“military’s belief system”, where as the rest of the scholars
have viewed military from the view-point of outsiders.
 Soldier-writers have also written extensively on military and
politics in Pakistan. One can include the works of
K.M.Arif[...], A.R.Siddiqi [1996] (to name only a few), in this
category.
 The common theme that runs through all the streams of
scholarship on the topic is the fragility of civil-military
relations.
Understanding Civil-Military relations: A useful conceptual framework
Five DECISION MAKING AREAS OF CIVIL-MILITARY Relations

Internal Security Public Policy

[C] [B]
Elite Recruitment
[A]
[D] [E]
External Defence Military Organization
Elite Recruitment(I) : what we obeseve in Pakistan their role
increase during the milirty rule.
 What does it symbolize or signify? Civilian control over elite
recruitment is sine qua non for democratic rule.
 The extent of civilian control over elite recruitment?
 The conditions in which civilian control is violated ?(i) military
enjoys constitutionally reserved representation in cabinet or
parliament; or(II) it has informally recognized or
institutionalized veto power regarding appointment of
members of government or public administration,; or(III) if
active service personnel hold positions of political leadership.


What kind of situation prevails in Pakistan?
(i) military enjoys (II) it has informally (III) if active service
constitutionally reserved recognized or personnel hold positions of
representation in cabinet or institutionalized veto power political leadership
parliament regarding appointment of
members of government or
public administration
Public service commissions Only during the times of
military rule.
Overall assessment
 Lager Say: politicians …
 The circumstances under the domination of
politicians are compromised: (I)reserved
domains ;(II) military hegemonic; (III)
transition from military to civilian rule…
Elite Recruitment(II):The conditions in which the principles of
civilian control are violated?

 Military enjoys constitutionally reserved

representation in cabinet or parliament.
 Or: has informally recognized or institutionalized
veto power regarding the appointment of members
of government and public administration.
 Or: If armed forces control aspects of electoral
process.
 Or:if active service personnel hold positions of
political leadership.
What kind of situation prevails in Pakistan?
The Conditions that Croissant and
Kuhuen Identified?
Military enjoys constitutionally reserved
representation in cabinet or parliament
has informally recognized or
institutionalized veto power regarding the
appointment of members of government and
public administration
If armed forces control aspects of the
electoral process.
if active service personnel hold positions of
political leadership
Pakistan
≠
Military does play effective role in this
domain:
The appointment of military personnel to the
key posts/positions
10 percent quota in Civil Servicd
This becomes more conspicuous under
military rule.
(I)Under direct military rule;(II) from
transition from military to civilian rule;(iii)
when civil military relations are strained:
≠
Public Policy(III): What conclusion we can draw regarding the
area?

 On the surface civilian control but behind

the scene military asserts effective control
over the domain.
Public Policy(I) :The easiest way to remember the definition of
public policy:

 Defining the Public Policy: What does the area of Public

Policy encompass? The area of public policy
encompasses decision-making and implementation in all
political affairs except security and defence policy.
 Examples: (I)Fiscal and Economic Policy; (II)Foreign
Policy, and;(III)Public Welfare
 Examples of breaching civilian control in the area?(I) any
occurrences of autonomous military policy-making; or(II)
the formulation of genuine military structures which take
over functions from civilian administrative organizations
What kind of situation prevails in Pakistan?
The Control of Civil Foreign Policy (Military) Public Welfare (Civil
governments on Fiscal Governments)
and Economic Policy
Factors conditioning these Afghan Policy Civilian Governments
policies:
Kashmir Policy
Pakistan’s Nuclear
Programme
CPEC
Internal Security (I)
 Defining the area? Core function of any
national military; what is the practice in
established democracies?
 How both new and established democracies
deploy their armed forces? The Functions:(I)
disaster relief;(II) to support the civilian
police force and border control troops, and;
(III)or, to fight insurgencies and terrorism.
Internal Security (II):How are these activities become compatible with civilian control? Only if:
(I)
The(I) decision-making
power over the range
duration and(II) frequency of
these missions rests with
democratic authorities.
And (II)
If civilian institutions can
monitor military activities?
What kind of situation
prevails in Pakistan?
The domain of internal
security is not the exclusive
province of civilian
government.
The civilian governments
don’t have an absolute say in
control of this domain.
(IV) National Defence/External Defence(I)
 ….is the core function of any national army.
 What is the norm or practice in established
democracies? Even in the …democracies military officers
are usually involved in formulating defense policies and
often provide expertise to civilian-decision-makers.
 The basic requirement for effective defense policy
making? “ requires civilian willing to make use of
military’s professional expertise”.
 When does the civilian control come at stake in the
area?
(II) When does the civilian control come at stake in the area?

 When civilians' authorities do not possess

the final decision-making power:
 (I) cannot control the defense policy agenda
 (II) or,if civilian institutions are not able to
monitor and sanction the military’s
activities.
(III) What kind of situation prevails in Pakistan: the limtations of civaian goverenet or
authorities in this area:

 civilians' authorities do not possess the final

decision-making power:
 (I) cannot control the defense policy agenda
 (II)civilian institutions are not able to monitor
and sanction the military’s activities.
 What does the comparison of Pakistan
situation with US Congress reveal?: ssevere
limitations of the civilan in this area.
(V) Military Organization
 What is military organization all about?
 the area of military organization comprises: decisions on the;
(I)size and organization of armed forces;
 (II) their doctrines and command structures, and;
 (III) as well as the general guidelines of recruitment, education,
appointment and equipment.
 What are the decisions that military takes on/about which areas?
 This is the area where military requires a certain degree of
organizational autonomy.. To fulfill its functions or where the
military asserts a certain degree of organizational autonomy?

(II)The civilian control largely depends on which aspect?

 Civilian control is dependent on civilian’s

ability to define the range and boundaries
of this “institutional autonomy”. ( yeh
institunal autonmy bey lagam nahian honi
chichey).
What kind of situation prevails in Pakistan?

 The absolute control of military:

 decisions on the; (I)size and organization of
armed forces;
 (II) their doctrines and command structures,
and;
 (III) as well as the general guidelines of
recruitment, education, appointment and
equipment.
NP: What do we mean by Full-Fledged Civilian Control?

 Requires civilian authorities enjoy

uncontested decision-making power in all
five areas.
 The two challenges that could emerge to
civilian control/ domination?
 (I) Institutionalized rule, and(II)
Contestation…
The Forms in which the challenges to civilian control may
arise/emerge?
(I) Institutionalized Rules
refer to the existence of “military
prerogatives”.
(II) Contestations
Contestation comprises all the instances of
the military challenging the civilian
decision-making power.
▪That type or kind of reaction or behavior
can take/assume two distinct forms:(I) by
threatening to engage,
and;(II) or actually engaging in illegitimate
conduct...
What kind of situation prevails in Pakistan:
A Typology of Civil-Military Relations(not required)

 The work of Ayesha Siddiqa Agha describes “six

identifiable typologies” of civil-military relations:
 Civil-military Partnership

 Authoritarian-political-bureaucratic partnership

 Ruler military domination

 Arbitrator military domination

 Parent-guardian military domination

 How does Ayesha Siddiqa Agha typify the role of

military in Pakistan?
The Situation that Prevails in Pakistan
The Crux of the Deabte: Understanding Civil-Military relations: A useful
conceptual framework
Five DECISION MAKING AREAS OF CIVIL-MILITARY Relations

Elite Recruitment Public Policy Internal Security [D] E]

[A] [B] [C] External Defence Military
Organization

Say: Civilians Say: civilian Say: military Greater collaboration Minimal Civilian
comparatively. However, the Though civiam between civilians and control :
The situations when country’s defence governess can ask the military in this
it is compromised: budget leaves civil miliary to launch area. But the Civian
(I) Martial laws; (II) regimes with little to operations. But they government ’s
transition from exert or effectively have no say over the autonomy is often
military to civilian control over the area. duration of the compromised on
rule; operation and iysse traling
(III) The times of However, one regarding the aspects Afghanistan,
elections domain of public of stopping them. Iran ,India, Relations
policy remains the with US.
Due to rese this effective province of
civilian dominance military–foreign
or say in the areas is policy.
compromised.
The Main Reasons behind Strains in the Civil-Military Relations
in Pakistan

 [I] Trust-deficit
 [II] The dominance of military in the
political system of the country
 [III] The “military-mindset”

 [IV] The role of politicians

 [V] Military has not respected the political

authority [popular mandate]
Trust-deficit
Why Military does not repose trust in Why Politicians distrust military?
Politicians ?
Personalization of Power /Executive Reactive Militarism:
Arrogance
Military’s Perception of threat to its Over-developed state structure
institutional interests.
Mind-set Punctuated Democracy
Over ambitious role of military
The Tussle between Political Forces and Military to dominate the Political System(I)

 What kind of situation prevails in the developing countries?

(Context):In developing countries, who controls key
government positions can be instrumental in determining the
growth of political parties or lack thereof.
 Myron Weiner’s Study of India

•The major problem: “scarcity of resources”.

 •Who controls, allocates, and distributes the resources

determines the shape of the political system

•What happened in India?
 What was the strategy of the bureaucratic-military elite?

• What happened in Pakistan?

(II):Myron Weiner’s Study of India
 ▪Conducted a case of India
 ▪What happened in India?

▫The political elite were quick to establish their

supremacy over bureaucratic institutions and the
Congress party took control of the key government
positions , using them as vehicle to distribute and
allocate the resources among the competing
groups.
 Thus, party system was consolidated.
•(III): What happened in Pakistan?

 What was the strategy of bureaucratic-military elite?

▫The bureaucratic-military elite primary strategy was to monopolize
the key governmental positions, thereby denying the political leaders
and the political parties the advantages of distributing rewards and
patronage.
 ▪ What happened in Pakistan?

▫In Pakistan the bureaucratic elite took over this function and pre-
empted the political leaders who suffered from dissension, but the
bureaucratic elites supported by military elites exacerbated this
dissensions.
3The Dominance of military in the political system of the country

Over-developed State Structure

Strong Ethnic Cohesion
Image Factor :
Punctuated Democracy /Political System’s institutional Poverty…
Weak Civil Society
Leadership
(4)The role of Politicians

 Reactive Militarism
(5)Military has not respected the Political Mandate
How to improve the civil-military relations: Some specific
suggestions [I]

 [I] By ensuring unbroken continuity of democracy

 [II] The politicians should show strong
commitment to democracy
 [III]Military should pursue a self-imposed
restraint, not to intervene in politics and allow
the continuation of the democratic process
 [IV] By promoting political tolerance to create a
pluralistic society
How to improve the civil-military relations: [II]

 [V]A number of helpful suggestions that the work of

Aqil Shah[2014] provides
 [VI] Though politicians complain about the intrusion
of military in politics but they have not drawn up an
alternative strategy to regain the turf they have lost
 [VII] We need to foster the awareness of political
socialization. The media and the civil society should
play a critical role in expediting the process of
political socialization the country.
Summing Up
 [I] “Civilian control is not a fact but a
process”. [Kohn]
 [II] Military should pursue a self-imposed
restrain not to intervene in politics
 [III] Politicians should show great maturity.
They should be aware of geographical and
strategic imperatives of the situation
prevailing in the country.