Communication

Interfaces
Introduction
▪ Embedded systems typically rely on communication interfaces to interact with the outside world, exchange data and
control signals with other devices or systems.

▪ There are two types of communication interfaces in embedded systems: onboard and external.

▪ Onboard communication interfaces are integrated into the embedded system's hardware and are typically used to
communicate with peripherals or other onboard components.

▪ Examples of onboard communication interfaces include Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART),

Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI), Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)

▪ External communication interfaces allow the embedded system to communicate with devices or systems outside of
the embedded system itself.

▪ Examples of external communication interfaces include Ethernet, USB, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi.
I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit):
▪ I2C is a serial communication protocol used to connect multiple devices on a single bus.

▪ It was developed by Philips Semiconductors (now NXP Semiconductors) and is widely

used in low-speed communication applications.

▪ Two wires are used for communication: SDA (Serial Data) and SCL (Serial Clock).

▪ The SDA line carries data between the master and the slave devices, while the SCL line
carries the clock signal that synchronizes the data transfer between devices.

▪ The I2C protocol uses a master-slave relationship, where a master device initiates
communication and controls the bus, while one or more slave devices respond to the
master's requests.

▪ Each device on the I2C bus has a unique address assigned to it, allowing the master to
communicate with specific devices.

▪ The I2C protocol supports two data transfer modes: addressing and data transfer.
I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit):
▪ In the addressing mode, the master sends the slave's address followed by a read/write bit
to specify the direction of data transfer.

▪ In the data transfer mode, the master and slave exchange data in bytes, with the master
sending a byte and waiting for the slave to acknowledge the receipt of the data before
sending the next byte.

▪ The I2C protocol also supports different clock speeds, including standard mode (up to 100
kbps), fast mode (up to 400 kbps), and high-speed mode (up to 3.4 Mbps).

▪ The clock speed is determined by the master device and is selected based on the
requirements of the application.

▪ I2C is commonly used in embedded systems for communicating with a wide range of
peripherals, such as sensors, displays, EEPROMs, and other microcontrollers.

▪ Its simple two-wire interface, multi-master support, and flexible clock speeds make it a
popular choice for communication between multiple devices.
SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface):
▪ SPI is a synchronous serial communication protocol used to connect multiple devices on a
single bus.

▪ Four wires are used for communication: MOSI (Master Output Slave Input), MISO (Master
Input Slave Output), SCLK (Serial Clock), and SS (Slave Select).

▪ The MOSI line carries data from the master to the slave device, while the MISO line carries
data from the slave to the master.

▪ The SCLK line carries the clock signal that synchronizes the data transfer between devices.

▪ The SS line is used to select the slave device that will communicate with the master.

▪ The SPI protocol uses a master-slave relationship, where a master device initiates
communication and controls the bus, while one or more slave devices respond to the
master's requests.

▪ The master device generates a clock signal on the SCLK line to synchronize data transfer
between the master and the slave.
SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface):
▪ The master sends data to the slave on the MOSI line, and the slave sends data to the
master on the MISO line.

▪ The SS line is used to select the slave device that will communicate with the master.

▪ SPI can operate in full-duplex or half-duplex mode, allowing for simultaneous data
transmission in both directions or one direction at a time.

▪ SPI can also operate in different clock speeds, depending on the requirements of the
application.

▪ SPI is commonly used in embedded systems for communicating with a wide range of
peripherals, such as sensors, displays, memory chips, and other microcontrollers.

▪ Its simple four-wire interface, high-speed data transfer, and multi-slave support make it a
popular choice for communication between multiple devices.
UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter):
▪ UART is a serial communication protocol used to transmit and receive data between
devices.

▪ Two wires are used for communication: Tx (Transmit) and Rx (Receive).

▪ The Tx line carries data from the transmitting device to the receiving device, while the
Rx line carries data from the receiving device to the transmitting device.

▪ UART does not use a clock signal to synchronize data transfer; instead, it uses a start
bit, data bits, parity bit (optional), and stop bit.

▪ The start bit signals the start of a data frame, and the stop bit signals the end of a data
frame.

▪ The data bits represent the actual data being transmitted, and the parity bit (optional)
is used for error detection.
UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter):
▪ UART uses a master-slave relationship, where the transmitting device is the master,
and the receiving device is the slave.

▪ The data transfer rate is determined by the baud rate, which represents the number of
bits transmitted per second.

▪ UART is commonly used in embedded systems for communicating with a wide range
of peripherals, such as GPS modules, Bluetooth modules, and other microcontrollers.

▪ Its simple two-wire interface, asynchronous data transfer, and flexible baud rate make
it a popular choice for communication between multiple devices.

▪ UART can support different configurations, such as 7 or 8 data bits, odd or even
parity, and 1 or 2 stop bits, depending on the requirements of the application.
1-Wire Interface:
▪ 1-Wire Interface is a serial communication protocol used to transmit and receive
data between devices over a single wire.

▪ A single wire is used for communication, along with a ground connection.

▪ The 1-Wire Interface uses a unique communication protocol that allows for both
data transfer and power supply over a single wire.

▪ Each device on the 1-Wire bus has a unique 64-bit address that is used to identify
the device.

▪ The data transfer rate is determined by the timing of the communication protocol,
which allows for data transfer rates of up to 16.3 kbps.

▪ The 1-Wire Interface supports various communication modes, including standard

mode, overdrive mode, and strong pull-up mode, each with different timing
requirements.
1-Wire Interface:
▪ The 1-Wire Interface uses a master-slave relationship, where the master initiates
communication and controls the bus, while the slave responds to the master's
requests.

▪ The 1-Wire Interface uses a combination of timing and voltage levels to signal data
transfer, with each bit represented by a specific voltage level and duration.

▪ The 1-Wire Interface is commonly used in embedded systems for communicating with
a wide range of peripherals, such as temperature sensors, memory chips, and other
microcontrollers.

▪ Its simple single-wire interface, low pin count, and unique addressing scheme make it
a popular choice for communication between multiple devices.

▪ 1-Wire Interface can operate in parasitic power mode, where devices can be powered
solely from the data line, eliminating the need for a separate power supply.
Parallel Interface:
▪ A parallel interface is a communication interface that transfers data in parallel,
meaning that multiple bits of data are transferred simultaneously using multiple
wires.

▪ Parallel interfaces can have different numbers of wires, ranging from 8 to 16 or

more, depending on the application.

▪ Parallel interfaces support data transfer speeds that are much faster than serial
interfaces, but they require more wires and are more complex to implement.

▪ Parallel interfaces are commonly used in applications such as LCDs, printers,

and FPGAs.
Parallel Interface:

▪ A parallel interface can have different numbers of pins, depending

on the number of bits being transferred.

▪ For example, an 8-bit parallel interface would have 8 data pins, a

clock pin, and possibly additional control pins such as enable,
read/write, and address pins.

▪ The exact pin diagram for a parallel interface depends on the

specific implementation.
RS-232 C & RS-485:
▪ RS-232C is a standard for serial communication that defines the electrical and mechanical characteristics
of the interface between data terminal equipment (DTE) and data communication equipment (DCE).

▪ RS-232C uses a single-ended signal, with one wire used for transmitting data and another for receiving
data.

▪ RS-232C uses a voltage swing between positive and negative voltage levels to signal data transfer, with a
voltage level of -3 to -15V representing a logic 1 and a voltage level of 3 to 15V representing a logic 0.

▪ RS-232C supports various baud rates, ranging from 110 bits per second to 115,200 bits per second.

▪ RS-232C is commonly used for communication between computers and peripheral devices, such as
modems, printers, and scanners.

▪ RS-232C can communicate over a distance of up to 50 feet, depending on the quality of the cable and the
environment.

▪ RS-232 supports two different types of connectors, namely; DB-9: 9-Pin connector and DB-25: 25-Pin
connector

▪ RS-485 is the enhanced version of RS-422 and it supports multi-drop communication with up to 32
transmitting devices (drivers) and 32 receiving devices on the bus. The communication between devices in
the bus uses the ‘addressing’ mechanism to identify slave devices.
 Universal Serial Bus (USB):
▪ Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a standard for serial communication between computers and peripheral devices.

▪ USB uses a bus topology, where multiple devices can be connected to a single USB port on the computer.

▪ USB supports two types of data transfer: control transfer and data transfer.

▪ Control transfer is used for device configuration, status, and control, while data transfer is used for transferring data.

▪ USB uses a four-wire interface, consisting of two data wires, a power wire, and a ground wire.

▪ USB supports various data transfer rates, ranging from 1.5 Mbps to 10 Gbps, depending on the USB version.

▪ USB supports hot-plugging, where devices can be connected or disconnected from the USB port without turning off the computer.

▪ USB devices can be self-powered or bus-powered, where the power is supplied by the USB port.

▪ USB supports multiple devices on a single port using a hub, which provides additional ports for connecting more devices.

▪ USB uses a protocol called Host-Device protocol, where the computer acts as the host, and the connected devices act as the devices.

▪ USB supports various versions, including USB 1.0, USB 2.0, USB 3.0, and USB 4.0, with each version offering improved data transfer rates and features.

▪ USB is commonly used in a wide range of applications, such as printers, scanners, digital cameras, keyboards, mice, and external hard drives.
 Infrared (IrDA):

▪ Infrared Data Association (IrDA) is a standard for wireless communication using infrared light.

▪ IrDA uses a line-of-sight communication, where the transmitting and receiving devices must be within a direct line of sight of each other.

▪ IrDA uses light waves in the infrared spectrum, typically at a wavelength of 850 nm.

▪ IrDA supports various data transfer rates, ranging from 2400 bps to 16 Mbps, depending on the IrDA version.

▪ IrDA supports half-duplex communication, where data can only be transmitted in one direction at a time.

▪ IrDA uses a protocol called IrLAP (Infrared Link Access Protocol) for establishing and maintaining the communication link.

▪ IrDA supports various device classes, including printer, fax, modem, and computer.

▪ IrDA is commonly used in applications such as mobile devices, remote controls, and data transfer between computers and peripherals.

▪ IrDA has been largely replaced by other wireless communication standards, such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.
 Bluetooth (BT):

▪ Bluetooth is a wireless communication standard that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices.

▪ Bluetooth supports different data transfer rates depending on the version of Bluetooth being used. Bluetooth 5.2 has a maximum data
transfer rate of 2 Mbps.

▪ Bluetooth operates in the unlicensed Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) frequency band at 2.4 GHz and has a range of up to 10
meters (33 feet) under ideal conditions.

▪ Bluetooth supports point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication and uses a pairing process to establish a secure connection.

▪ Bluetooth supports different profiles that define the capabilities and features of Bluetooth-enabled devices. These profiles include the
hands-free profile (HFP) for mobile phones, the advanced audio distribution profile (A2DP) for stereo audio streaming, and the human
interface device (HID) profile for wireless keyboards and mice.

▪ Bluetooth has evolved over the years, with newer versions offering improved data transfer rates, range, and features. Bluetooth Low
Energy (BLE), for example, is designed for low-power applications and has a range of up to 100 meters (328 feet) under ideal
conditions.
Wi-Fi:

▪ Wi-Fi speed and range depend on the frequency band used. 2.4 GHz band has longer range but
slower speed, while 5 GHz band has shorter range but faster speed.

▪ The maximum Wi-Fi speed depends on the version of the 802.11 standard used. Newer versions
offer faster speed.

▪ Actual Wi-Fi speed may be slower than theoretical maximum due to various factors.

▪ The range of a Wi-Fi network can be affected by physical obstacles and other electronic devices.

▪ To extend the Wi-Fi range, users can install additional access points or use Wi-Fi range
extenders.

▪ Wi-Fi mesh networks use multiple access points to provide seamless coverage throughout a
large area.

▪ Wi-Fi 6E is a new standard that offers higher speed and less interference, but requires new
equipment that is not yet widely available.
ZigBee
▪ ZigBee is a low-power, low-data rate wireless networking technology that is designed for
applications that require short-range communication and long battery life.

▪ ZigBee operates on the 2.4 GHz frequency band and uses a mesh networking
architecture, where each device in the network can act as a router, relaying messages to
other devices in the network.

▪ ZigBee devices can communicate directly with each other or through other devices in the
network, forming a self-healing and self-organizing network that can continue to operate
even if some devices fail or are removed.

▪ ZigBee uses a small amount of bandwidth and power, allowing it to be used in battery-
powered devices that need to operate for long periods without replacement.

▪ ZigBee supports multiple network topologies, including star, tree, and mesh, and can be
used in a wide range of applications, such as home automation, industrial control, and
wireless sensor networks.

▪ ZigBee devices communicate using a protocol stack that includes the physical layer, MAC
layer, network layer, and application layer.

▪ ZigBee provides built-in security features, including encryption and authentication, to

protect data transmitted over the network from unauthorized access.
 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), 3G, 4G, LTE:
▪ General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a 2G wireless technology that enables mobile devices to transmit and receive data over a cellular network. GPRS
uses packet switching to transmit data in small, discrete packets, which allows for more efficient use of network resources.

▪ 3G, or third generation, wireless technology is an improvement over 2G technologies such as GPRS, offering faster data transfer rates and more reliable
connectivity. 3G networks use a combination of packet switching and circuit switching to transmit data, allowing for voice and data services to be used
simultaneously.

▪ 4G, or fourth generation, wireless technology is a significant improvement over 3G and offers even faster data transfer rates, lower latency, and higher capacity.
4G networks use all-IP packet switching to transmit data, allowing for more efficient use of network resources and faster transfer speeds.

▪ LTE, or Long-Term Evolution, is a 4G wireless technology that provides even faster data transfer rates and higher capacity than traditional 4G networks. LTE
networks use a combination of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) and time division multiplexing (TDM) to transmit data over multiple frequency bands,
allowing for higher data transfer rates and more reliable connectivity.

▪ All of these wireless technologies use radio waves to transmit data between mobile devices and cellular towers, which act as the gateway to the internet or
other networks. The devices must have a compatible modem or chipset to connect to these networks.

▪ The transfer speeds and connectivity of these networks can be affected by factors such as signal strength, network congestion, and distance from the cellular
tower.

▪ These wireless technologies have enabled a wide range of mobile applications and services, including voice and video calls, mobile internet access, and mobile
payment systems.
IEEE 1394 (Firewire):
▪ IEEE 1394, or Firewire, is a high-speed serial bus interface for transferring data between
devices.

▪ Firewire uses a daisy-chain topology and supports hot-swapping of devices.

▪ Firewire uses isochronous data transfer, making it suitable for real-time applications like
video and audio streaming.

▪ Firewire supports peer-to-peer communication, allowing devices to communicate directly with

each other.

▪ Used to connect personal computers, audio and video devices, and other professional and
consumer electronics.

▪ Firewire has largely been replaced by newer technologies like USB 3.0 and Thunderbolt, but
is still used in some professional audio and video equipment.