A.

INTRODUCTION TO
LANGUAGE
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Define what is Language?
● A language is system of communication consisting
of sounds, words and grammar, or the system of
communication used by the people of a particular
country or profession
● According to the philosophy expressed in the
myths and religions of many peoples, language is
the source of human life and power.
● Most everyone knows at least one language

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 Some Definitions of Language
• According to Sapir: “ Language is a purely human and non-
instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and
desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”
• According to Bloch & Trager: “It is a system of arbitrary vocal
symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.”
• According to Hall: “Language is the institution whereby humans
communicate and interact with each other by means of
habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”
• According to Chomsky: “Language is a set (finite or infinite) of
sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite
set of elements.” 3
Linguistic Knowledge
● When you know a language, you can speak and be understood by others who know that
language. This means you have the capacity to produce sounds that signify certain
meanings and to understand or interpret the sounds produced by others. The languages
of the deaf communities throughout the world are equivalent to spoken languages.

Knowledge of the Sound System

• Knowing a language means knowing what sounds are in that language and what sounds are
not• Knowing the sound system of a language includes more than knowing the inventory of
sounds. It means also knowing which sounds may start a word, end a word, and follow each
other.

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Knowledge of Words
• Knowing a language means also knowing that certain sequences of
sounds signify certain concepts or meanings. When you know a
language, you know words in that language, that is, which sequences
of sounds are related to specific meanings and which are not. You
also know that toy and boy are words, but moy is not. the
relationship between speech sounds and the meanings they
represent is an arbitrary one.
• Many signs were originally like miming, where the relationship
between form and meaning is not arbitrary
• Sound Symbolism in language—that is, words
whose pronunciation suggests the meaning. Most
languages contain onomatopoeic words like buzz or
murmur that imitate the sounds associated with the
objects or actions they refer to. cock-a-doodle-doo is an
onomatopoeic word whose meaning is the crow of a
rooster.

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The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge

• Knowledge of a language enables us to combine sounds to form words,

words to form phrases, and phrases to form sentences.

• Knowing a language means being able to produce new sentences never

spoken be0fore and to understand sentences never heard before.

• … everybody who knows a language can and does create new sentences
when speaking and understands new sentences created by others
(Chomsky)

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 Knowledge of Sentences and Non-sentences
• If sentences were formed simply by placing one
word after another in any order, then a language
could be defined simply as a set of words.
• linguistic knowledge includes rules for forming
sentences and making the kinds of judgments you
made about. These rules must be finite in length and
finite in number so that they can be stored in our
finite brains.
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 Linguistic Knowledge and
Performance
• Our linguistic knowledge permits us to form longer and longer
sentences by joining sentences and phrases together or adding
modifiers to a noun.
• having the knowledge to produce sentences of a language;
linguistic competence and applying this knowledge in actual
speech production and comprehension; linguistic
performance.
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 In most accounts, the primary purpose of language is to facilitate
communication, in the sense of transmission of information from
one person to another. However, sociolinguistic and
psycholinguistic studies have drawn attention to a range of other
functions for language. Among these is the use of language to
express a national or local identity (a common source of conflict in
situations of multiethnicity around the world, such as in Belgium,
India, and Quebec). Also important are the "ludic" (playful)
function of language encountered in such phenomena as puns,
riddles, and crossword puzzles and the range of functions seen in
imaginative or symbolic contexts, such as poetry. Drama, and
religious expression.

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Linguistic
is the science of language .
It includes what are generally distinguished as descriptive
linguistics and historical linguistics. Linguistics is now a highly
technical subject; it embraces, both descriptively and historically,
such major divisions as phonetics, grammar including syntax and
morphology), semantics, and pragmatics, dealing in detail with
these various aspects of language.

This is where you section ends. Duplicate this set of slides as many times you need to go over all your sections.
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Linguistic Definition: Language is a system of communication consisting of
sounds, words, and grammar used by humans to express thoughts, feelings, and
ideas. It is a dynamic and complex system that allows for both verbal and non-
verbal communication.

Cultural Definition: Language is a fundamental aspect of culture, shaping how

individuals perceive the world around them and interact with others. It
encompasses not only the words and grammar used but also the customs, beliefs,
and values embedded within a particular linguistic community.

Psychological Definition: Language is a cognitive ability unique to humans,

allowing for the acquisition, processing, and production of complex
communication. It involves various cognitive processes such as perception,
memory, and reasoning. 12
Social Definition: Language is a social tool used for
interaction and cooperation among individuals within a
community. It serves to establish and maintain social
relationships, convey identity and belonging, and transmit
cultural knowledge from one generation to the next.
Functional Definition: Language serves multiple
functions, including expressive (expressing emotions and
thoughts), informative (conveying information), directive
(giving commands or requests), and phatic (maintaining
social relationships).
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DEFINE STANDARD ENGLISH

Standard English is the English that with

respect to spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and
vocabulary is substantially uniform though not
devoid of regional differences, that is well
established by usage in the formal and informal
speech and writing of the educated, and that is
widely recognized as acceptable wherever English
is spoken and understood
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 Standard English is
A dialect/a sub-variety of English
But an unusual dialect
 There is really no continuum linking Standard English to other
dialects
 It is a purely social dialect – it has lost its geographical anchor
Scottish Standard English, American Standard English,
English Standard English
 It has native speakers – constituting about 12%-15% of the
population concentrated at the top of the social scale

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Standard English is
A social dialect which is distinguished from other
dialects of the language by its grammatical
forms
But not a set of prescriptive rules
 I’ve bought a new car which I’m very pleased
with.
 It’s me.
 He is taller than me.
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 Standard English is not:
A Language
● it is only one variety of English among many
● it is the variety normally used in writing, especially printing  it is the variety
associated with the education system in all the English- speaking countries of the
world
● it is the variety generally spoken by those who are often referred to as “educated
people”
● it is the variety taught to non-native learners
An accent
● Receive Pronunciation is a standardized accent of English and not Standard English
● Receive Pronunciation is a purely social accent associated with speakers from upper-
class and upper-middle-class backgrounds from all parts of the country
● Approx. 9%-12% of the population of Britain speak Standard English with some form
of regional accent
● Standard English is an international variety; standardised Receive Pronunciation is
not 17
Standard English is not:
A style
Styles are varieties of language which can be ranged on a continuum from very
formal to very informal
 individuals use a variety of styles according to context
 an individual's repertoire of styles depend on experience and education
Compare
 Father was exceedingly fatigued subsequent to his extensive peregrination.
 Dad was very tired after his lengthy journey
 The old man was bloody knackered after his long trip.
 Father were very tired after his lengthy journey.
 Standard English is not:
A register
a variety of language determined by topic, subject matter or
activity, such as the register of mathematics, the register of
medicine, or the register of pigeon fancying
 constituted by lexical choice
 syntactic choice (e.g. law)
 academic, technical, scientific registers are taught in school
 is there such a thing as „standard vocabulary‟?
Linguistic difference
Standard
• I did it
• Come quickly!
• …the books that I bought…
• …those books…
• I didn’t break it.
• I didn’t break anything
• We started first, didn’t we?
Non-Standard
• I done it
• Come quick!
• …the book what I bought…
• …them books…
• I never broke it.
• I didn’t break anything
• We started first, isn’t it?
 Linguistic Change
Compare
 He is bigger than me/He is bigger than I
 He is bigger than what I am
 You haven’t got any money, do you?  You don’t
got any money, do you?
 There was this man, and he’d got this gun... etc.
 There was a man, and he’d got a gun... etc.
 Education
English is unusual in that:
 it is the world‟s „lingua franca‟, used by perhaps 300
million L2 speakers
 it is the only language whose L2 speakers and learners
far outnumber its native speakers  it‟s an industry
Characteristics of Standard English
Grammar and Syntax: Standard English adheres to commonly accepted rules of grammar
and syntax, which include subject-verb agreement, appropriate word order, and consistent verb
tenses. It avoids regional or dialect-specific grammatical features, making it universally
comprehensible to speakers from various backgrounds.
Vocabulary: Standard English incorporates a broad vocabulary derived from Middle English
plus diverse sources such as Latin, Greek, French, and other languages. It avoids excessive use
of slang, jargon, or colloquial expressions, preferring words that are widely recognized and
understood.
Pronounciation: Standard English pronunciation follows patterns generally associated with
educated speech, although there may be some regional variations. It emphasizes clarity,
enunciation, and the correct articulation of sounds, making it easier for speakers of different
dialects to understand each other.
Spelling and Punctuation: Standard English adopts standardized spelling and
punctuation conventions, which help ensure consistent written communication. It
follows the rules set by standard dictionaries and style guides, reducing ambiguity
and facilitating comprehension.
Register and Formality: Standard English is often used in formal contexts,
such as official documents, academic papers, business correspondence, and
professional settings. It aims to convey information clearly and objectively,
avoiding overly colloquial or informal language.
Cultural Neutrality: Standard English strives for cultural neutrality, avoiding
specific regional or ethnic biases. It aims to provide a fair and unbiased means of
communication, promoting understanding and inclusivity across different
cultural backgrounds.

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 Conventions of Standard English
Along with standardised grammatical rules and spelling, there are other conventions used in writing
that are regularised and seen as 'correct' in standard English. These conventions include the 'correct'
use of:

• Punctuation- we should use punctuation in the correct place and for the
correct purpose (e.g. using commas to separate words in a list or after an
introductory phrase).
• Capitalization- we should capitalise words at the beginning of a sentence and
proper nouns.
• Paragraphing- we should start a new paragraph for new information or
events. These paragraphs shouldn't be too long or short.

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 Standard English - Key Takeaways
• Standard English is the form of English that is widely recognized and
accepted as 'correct'.
• It is often used in formal situations or situations where you have to be polite.
• Standard English follows specific, regularised grammar rules that we
often learn in school.
• Non-standard English refers to all other varieties of English that are not
standard English. It often contains slang and is used in
more informal situations
• There are many non-standard regional dialects that have variations in slang,
and accent.

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LANGUAGE VARIATION
Definition:
The term linguistic variation (or simply variation)
refers to regional, social, or contextual differences in
the ways that a particular language is used.
 Variation between languages, dialects, and speakers
is known as interspeaker variation. Variation within
the language of a single speaker is called intraspeaker
variation.
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LANGUAGE VARIATION: FOCUS ON USERS

1- Idiolect
Idiolect is the language variation that is individual in nature. It has his
own language variation or his own idiolect.
Idiolect variation is concerning with the colors of voice, choice of
words, language style, sentence order, etc.
The colors of voice is the most dominant aspect in language variation,
because we can recognize someone just by listening to voice without
seeing the person.

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 2. Dialect
Dialect is a sub-variety of a language
of a group of users in one particular
place, region or area. It is usually
called regional dialect or geography
dialect. The users of a dialect have
certain features that mark them as
people who have the same dialect
although they have their own idiolect.
The study of dialects is called
dialectology.

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3. Sociolect (Socio dialect)
Social dialects are the language that reflects the groupings of people that is
based on similar social and economic factors.
A person’s dialect reflects his social background. It also based on age, social
strata etc.

4. Temporal dialect
It means the language variation that is used by a certain social group in
particular time.
For example, in the development of English. English had began from the Old
English in the year of 600 to 1100, the Middle English in the year of 1100 to
1450, the Early Modern English in the year of 1450 to 1700 until the Modern
English in the year of 1700 up to now.

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LANGUAGE VARIATION: FOCUS ON USES

1. Style: According to Janet Holmes, 2001 the definitions of style are:

a. Style is language variation which reflects changes in situational
factors, such as addressee, setting, task or topic.
b. Style is often analyzed along scale of formality.
c. The level of formality is influenced by some factors like the various
differences among the participants, topic, emotional, involvement,
etc.

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2. Register Holmes (2001:246) states that it refers to the
language of groups of people with common interests or jobs, or
specific situations. The different registers can be seen in the language
used by legalist, auctioneers, race- callers, sports commentator,
airline pilots, criminals, financiers, politicians, disc jockeys, in the
courtroom and the classroom, journalist. Language of journalism
(journalistic) has specific characteristics, it is simple, communicative
and brief. The language is simple because it has to be understood
easily, communicative because it has to deliver news appropriately,
and brief because of the limited space (in printed media) and limited
time (in electronic media).
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 Other Language Variation
Accent
Accent is the way of pronunciation particular to a
speaker of group. All languages are spoken with
several different accents. There is nothing
unusual about English, and not everyone who
comes from the same place speaks in the same. In
any place there is a variety of accent. For
example: Britis (United Kingdom) and American
(United States) 33
 Bilingualism and multilingualism
The use of language in a situation of bilingualism
and/or multilingualism often involves the problems of
who speaks, what language, to whom and when.
Bilingualism is an individual’s ability to use two
language variety. Individual bilingualism use of more
that one languages or competence in more that one l
anguages. While multilingualism is an individual’s ability
to use many languages.

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Lingua Franca
Lingua franca is language of wider community, is
used as a means of communication among the
speakers of other languages. It is called bridge
language, or vehicular language in certain place with
many different speaker and language. For example:
English as international language in the world

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Pidgin is basically contact language. They envolve between in
different culture who speak different languages and need some way of
communicating with each other to carry out trade or work. The
vocabularies are mix structure as the consequence of mixing two
culture. Example: Traders communicate with the tourist
Creole is pidgin which has run long time so that the structure and
the vocabularies become better and better. It also used by new
generation.

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Code Switching and Code Mixing Code

Switching is switching the situation from one code to

another. If a speaker firstly uses code A (for example
Arabic Language) then she/he changes the code to
code B (English Language).
Code Mixing is used when the speaker mix two
language or use both language together to in single
utterance.

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 Causes of Language Variation
1. Historical Factors: Language variation often reflects the historical development and evolution of a language.
Migration, colonization, trade, and cultural exchange have historically contributed to linguistic diversity by
introducing new words, expressions, and linguistic features into a language.
2. Social Identity: Language serves as a marker of social identity, and individuals may consciously or
unconsciously adopt linguistic features associated with their social group to express belonging or solidarity.
This phenomenon, known as linguistic accommodation, contributes to language variation within
communities.
3. Geographical Isolation: Physical barriers such as mountains, rivers, or oceans can isolate populations,
leading to the development of distinct regional dialects over time. Geographic factors influence linguistic
variation by shaping patterns of interaction and cultural exchange among speakers.
4. Contact with Other Languages: Languages in contact often influence each other, leading to the borrowing
of words, phrases, and grammatical structures. This phenomenon, known as linguistic borrowing or code-
switching, contributes to language variation by incorporating elements from other languages into the
linguistic repertoire of speakers.
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Significance of Language Variation
1.Cultural Diversity: Language variation reflects the rich cultural diversity of
human societies, highlighting the unique ways in which communities express their
identities and experiences through language.
2.Linguistic Research: Studying language variation provides insights into the
underlying mechanisms of language change, acquisition, and evolution. Linguists
use variationist approaches to analyze patterns of linguistic variation and
understand how language functions in diverse contexts.
3.Communication and Understanding: Awareness of language variation
enhances communication by fostering tolerance and appreciation for linguistic
diversity. Understanding regional dialects and sociolinguistic norms enables
individuals to navigate different language varieties and communicate effectively
across diverse linguistic communities.
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https://www.slideshare.net/YouDee1/language-58602079
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https://teflpedia.com/Standard_English#:~:text=Grammar%20and%20Syntax%3A%20Standard%20En
glish,to%20speakers%20from%20various%20backgrounds
.
https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/english/international-english/standard-english/#:~:text=
Uniform%20%2D%20Due%20to%20standard%20English,and%20follows%20set%20grammatical%20ru
les
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https://www.slideshare.net/DrMohsinKhan1/sociolinguistic-introduction?fbclid=IwAR0UY0Ui0eNDyM
nKe8Q66UbOHpgN6PZBdsQFVIliKGYF-FncnnT5ATSUUfU_aem_AWAxXAXLHF2DWCe2inhylE1KgItO
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Thank you!
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