Overview of Quantum

Theory
- Jhunriel C. Sorita
Overview of Quantum Theory
Light propagates through space in the form of
electromagnetic (EM) waves, which have both electric
and magnetic properties. A portion of light, which the
eyes can detect, is called visible light and occupies a
narrow band in the EM spectrum. Visible light consists
of different colors (ROYGBIV); each color with distinct
characteristics.
 Overview of Quantum Theory
Light waves can be
described in terms of
amplitude, wavelength,
and frequency.
Amplitude – is the distance from equilibrium point (x-
axis) of a propagating wave to the highest (or lowest)
point of the waveform.
Overview of Quantum Theory
Wavelength () – is the distance between identical
points in successive cycles in a propagating wave and is
usually measured in nanometers (nm) for the visible
light region.
Frequency (f) – is the number of cycles that a wave
makes per unit of time and is usually expressed in units
of Hertz (Hz) or 1/s (read as “per second”).
Overview of Quantum Theory
The frequency and wavelength of a wave is related to
its speed (v) in the basic wave equation.

This equation is used in describing the energy

associated with light. When traveling in a vacuum, the
speed of light (c) is 3.0x108 m/s.
Overview of Quantum Theory
Quantum Theory – proposed by Max Planck, a German
theoretical physicist.
- According to this, light energy is quantized in multiples of hf.
Each quantized energy, called quantum, can be calculated using
the equation
E = hf
h = Planck’s constant (6.626x10-34 J⦁s)
f = frequency in Hz
Overview of Quantum Theory

= is expressed in meters.
Overview of Quantum Theory
Albert Einstein proposed that light, aside from being an
electromagnetic wave, also exists as tiny particles,
which were later called photons.
Photon – can be considered as the quantized form of
light. The energy of a photon can be measured in
quantities of hf.
Atomic Orbitals
Atomic Orbitals – are regions around an atomic nucleus
where electrons are likely to be found. They’re
described by quantum numbers and shapes (s,p,d,f),
indicating the probability of an electron’s presence
within that region.
Atomic Orbitals
s orbital – spherical in shape.
There is a 90% probability of
finding an electron within the
sphere except at its center
where the nucleus is.
Atomic Orbitals
p orbital – is dumbbell-shaped. The three equivalent p
orbitals are px, py, and pz.
Atomic Orbitals
d orbital – these orbitals consist of four lobes, in
contrast to the two lobes of the p orbital.
Atomic Orbitals
f orbital – these orbitals have the most diffused
compared to the other orbitals.
Quantum Numbers
Quantum numbers – are fundamental in describing
the state of an electron within an atom. There are four
quantum numbers: principal quantum number (n),
azimuthal quantum number (l), magnetic quantum
number (ml), and spin quantum number (ms).
Quantum Numbers
a. Principal Quantum Number (n)
- Indicates the energy level or shell where an
atomic orbital can be found. It can have integral values
(n = 1, 2, 3, and so on), which correspond to the orbits
in the Bohr model.
Quantum Numbers
b. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
- it specifies the sublevel or subshell within a
particular principal energy level. It can have values of 0
to n – 1. The azimuthal quantum number represents
the kind and shape of the orbital (s,p,d,f) that is being
occupied by an electron.
Quantum Numbers
b. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
Quantum Numbers
c. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
- it indicates the specific orbital within the sublevel
where the electron is found. It can have values of –l to
+l. It also gives the number of orbitals in a sublevel and
the spatial orientation of these orbitals.
Example: n = 2 ; l = (n – 1) = 1 ; ml = -1, 0, +1
Quantum Numbers
d. Spin Quantum Number (ms)
- According to Pauli exclusion principle, only a
maximum of two electrons can occupy an orbital and
they must have opposite spins to minimize repulsion
between them. This principle is observed through the
spin quantum number, which can only have values of
+½ or –½ for each electron.
Quantum Numbers
Example:
Give the set of quantum numbers for each of the six electrons
that occupy the 4p orbitals.
Answer:
Px: (n=4, l=1, ml= -1, ms= +1/2, -1/2)
Py: (n=4, l=1, ml= 0, ms= +1/2, -1/2)
Pz: (n=4, l=1, ml= 1, ms= +1/2, -1/2)
Quantum Numbers
Quiz:
Give the set of quantum numbers for each of the 10
electrons that occupy the 3d orbitals.