FUEL OIL PROPERTIES

•Knowledge of the fundamental properties of the fuel that we work with,

as OBTs, is important.
•By understanding the fuel - how it works, why it works, and the
consequences if it does not work - a strong foundation will be laid from
which to build an understanding.
Origin of Crude Oil

• Oil is a natural product formed by the slow decomposition of plants and

animal life .
• Chemically transformed into hydrocarbons, these organic materials
separated into gas and oil , Not all crude oil is the same. The ingredients,
time period, method of development and local contaminates which
contribute result in a unique blend of crude oil. All hydrocarbons,
whether gas, liquid or solid, require refining to be used in modern
heating appliances.
• Straight-run fuel oils have a higher proportion of paraffinic hydrocarbons
compared to oils created by further refining. This means they have a
lower carbon to hydrogen ratio thus permitting easier combustion with
less air and a lesser tendency to smoke and form soot.
Catalytic Cracking Process

• Straight-run products are often further refined to produce higher

volumes of more valuable and marketable hydrocarbons .
• The process is basically the same as the straight-run process except that
the heated product is introduced into a reactor containing a catalyst.
• A catalyst is usually a chemical compound that promotes chemical
change without itself entering into or being consumed in the reaction.
Catalytic Cracking Process

• Cat-cracking changes the molecular structure of the oil often breaking

longer chains into shorter ones or making linear chains into circular
chains .
• Cat-cracking is also used to reduce contaminates in the oil such as
sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen.
• Some of the fuel grades will only be straight-run products such as
kerosene.
• The refining process has significant effects on the properties of the fuel
oil.
Standardized Grades of Fuel Oil

• Minimum standards for the various types of fuel oil products required
for safe operation of our appliances have been established by two
organizations.
• ASTM is a world renown organization in the United States which has
established five grades of fuel oil . No. 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 with No. 3 no
longer designated. Kerosene, which is considered a fuel separate from
fuel oil .
• The Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB) has established six grades
of fuel oil. Types" 0, 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6. Numbers 1 through 6 correspond to
the ASTM designations with Type 0 being peculiar to Canada. Kerosene
is also classified separately from fuel oil in Canada under types No. 1-K
and 2-K.
Standardized Grades of Fuel Oil
Standardized Grades of Fuel Oil

• Kerosene:
No. 1-K is intended for use with unvented space heaters while No. 2-K
is intended for use with wick-fed illuminating lamps and vented stoves
and heaters. The sulphur content and sooting characteristics of kerosene
are critical because of these uses so kerosene has to pass a special
burning test with a wick-fed illuminating lamp. At the end of the 24-hour
test, the wick must have no incrustation and the flame must be
undiminished and smoke-free to pass the test. The colour of kerosene is
also regulated to be clear and free from undissolved water and
suspended matter. The Fuel Oil Code defines kerosene as a fuel oil.
Standardized Grades of Fuel Oil

• Number 0 Fuel Oil: No. 0 fuel is intended for use in appliances in the far
northern regions where ambient temperatures of -50°C are
encountered. This grade is rarely found or even known in the industry.
• Number 1 Fuel Oil:
• Often called stove oil (or even kerosene) this straight-run distillate is
intended primarily for use in sleeve-type, wick-fed burners, vaporizing
pot-type burners and some atomizing burners in which No.2 fuel cannot
be used satisfactorily. Due to its greater fluidity (i.e. ability to flow) at
low temperatures compared to No. 2 fuel oil, it is often mixed with or
substituted for No.2 fuel oil when the No. 2 fuel oil supply tank is
subjected to cold outdoor temperatures.
Standardized Grades of Fuel Oil

• Number 2 Fuel Oil:

This is a heavier distillate than No. 1 and is intended for use in most
atomizing-type burners. Used in most domestic burners, it is sometimes
employed in medium capacity industrial burners where ease of handling
and ready availability may justify its higher cost over residual fuels like
No.4 to No. 6 fuel oils which have to be preheated to burn.
• Number 4 Fuel Oil:
This is an industrial type fuel intended primarily for burners that are
not equipped with preheaters.
• Number 5 Fuel Oil:
A residual type of oil, this is a blend of No. 2 and No. 6 oils for use in
burners equipped with preheaters but requiring a greater fluidity than
No. 6 fuel oil.
Standardized Grades of Fuel Oil

• Number 6 Fuel Oil:

A very thick and slow flowing residual oil, this grade is often called
Bunker C. It can only be employed in burners equipped with preheaters
to increase the fluidity of the oil. OBT1 certification is usually required to
work on appliances employing No. 4, 5, or 6 fuels since they have inputs
exceeding 7 gph.
Standardized Grades of Fuel Oil

• Gravity (density)
• Heat Content
• Viscosity (fluidity)
• Flash Point and Fire Point
• Distillation
• Carbon Residue
• Pour Point and Cloud Point
• Sulphur
• Corrosion
• Bottom Sediment and Water
• Colour and Odour
• Additives
Gravity

• Weight, density, specific gravity, relative density and degrees of API

gravity are all means of specifying how heavy a particular oil is for
comparative reasons. Each scale is co-dependent upon the temperature
of the oil since temperature affects volume. A gallon of 100°C (212°F) oil
would shrink to less than a gallon if cooled to 50°C but would be just as
heavy.
Heat Content

• The amount of heat energy created by burning fuel oil is measured in

British Thermal Units (Btu's). A Btu is the amount of heat energy needed
to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree F.
• For comparative purposes a set volume of fuel oil at the standardized
temperature of 15.6°C (60°F) is employed. Nozzles employed in oil
appliances are standardized in U.S. gallon flow capacity, the volume
commonly referred to for comparison is the U.S. gallon. The test is
actually conducted with a metallic cylinder approximately 7" by 3 1/2
"by 1/2" thick immersed in water and containing a weighted quantity of
oil and oxygen. The oil is burned and the rise in water temperature is
converted to Btu's.
Heat Content

• The commonly accepted heat value of No. 2 fuel oil is 140,000

Btu/U.S. gallon although the actual range is 136,000 to 140,000.
For convenience, the 140,000 value can be used to determine the
U.S. gallon per hour (gph) flow or nozzle size requirements from
the Btu per hour (Btu/h) input rating on the appliance rating plate.
• An appliance that is firing at 1 gallon per hour will have an input of
140,000 Btu/h. If an appliance has a maximum input rating of
105,000 Btu ;'h, the nozzle rating can be determined by the
following formula:
Viscosity

• Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow.

• Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's "thickness" or "thinness".

• Higher viscosity - a higher resistance to flow than water.

• Changes in the oil's resistance to flow, due to temperature changes, can

have significant effect on burner operation.

• Higher viscosity oil due to colder temperatures can affect the

pumpabilty of the oil or affect a burner nozzle's ability to break the oil
apart for proper combustion.
Viscosity

Viscosity is the most important characteristic of fuel oil and has the greatest
affect on burner operation.
Flash Point and Fire Point

• Fuel oil will not burn as a liquid; it first has to be changed into a vapour.

• The lowest temperature that a fuel oil initially ignites or flashes and the
lowest temperature at which sufficient vapours are continually created
to maintain a fire are important indicators of safety and combustion
characteristics.
• The lowest temperature at which vapours will first ignite when exposed
to an open flame, is called the flash point.
• Standards require a minimum flash point of 38°C to 60°C depending on
the grade of fuel oil,
Flash Point and Fire Point

• The fire point is the lowest temperature at which there are sufficient
vapours generated by the heated oil in an open cup tester to maintain a
continuous flame. Although the fire point is not specified by Standards,
it is an important indicator of the fuel's ability to burn.
• The fire point is indicative of the temperature at which the main body of
the oil begins to vaporize.
• For the heavier fuels, which require preheating for combustion, the flash
point and fire point are necessary tools for determining the type and
level of preheating.
• Straight-run oils generally have lower flash and fire points compared to
cracked oils.
Distillation

• The distillation characteristics of a fuel oil indicate its volatility and its
ability to vaporize.
• Distillation tests are only run on the lighter fuels (0, 1, and 2) since the
heavier fuels require preheating to vaporize.
• The test consists of controlled heating of a specified volume of oil in a
glass flask. The vapours are contained and passed through a condenser
with the liquid collected in a graduated cylinder. The temperature of the
oil is recorded for its initial boiling point (IBP) and when each 10%
increment is vaporized and re-condensed - with the 10% and 90%
temperatures being the most important. The end point (EP) and amount
of carbon residue is also recorded.

• The ignition and combustion characteristics of the fuel oil can largely be
determined by its distillation test results.
 Carbon Residue

• The heaviest carbon molecules, ash and residue that cannot burn or
would require extremely high temperatures to burn are left over after
the distillation tests and called carbon residue. The percentage of carbon
residue is an indicator of the amount of heavy fractions in the fuel oil.
• In lighter fuel oils, the carbon residue is so low that it is measured by
examining the last 10% of the distillation test oil with specialized filtering
procedures. Standards specify a maximum carbon residue of .10% for
Numbers 0 and 1 fuel oil and .35% for No. 2 fuel oil. Higher values either
indicate improperly refined product with too many heavy ends or
contaminated oil.
Pour Point and Cloud Point

• At low temperatures, fuel oils congeal into a semi-fluid or even solid

mass. Wax crystals may form giving the oil a hazy or cloudy appearance.
It is important to know the temperatures that cause this congealing and
wax precipitation since they have great effect on storage, pumping and
burner operation.

• Pour point is the temperature just above that which a fuel oil will no
longer flow (i.e. 3°C [5°F] above solidification point). The pour test that
gives us this temperature is conducted with a 2 ounce oil sample, which
is first heated to 46°C (115°F) for control reasons before cooling. The
sample container is tipped at 3°C intervals to determine its pourability.
Pour Point and Cloud Point

• Cloud point, which is the temperature at which wax crystals begin to

form, is typically -12° to -4°C (10° to 25°F) above the pour point.
• Wax crystals will return to their liquid state when the oil is heated above
the cloud point. Unfortunately, this re-liquefaction may occur after the
burner operation has been interrupted.
• Pour point and cloud point are closely monitored and controlled by oil
suppliers although regulatory standards only specify requirements for
kerosene (as given above in bold) but not the fuel oils.
• Since No. 1 fuel oil is normally straight-run oil and therefore has a higher
proportion of paraffinic (waxy) hydrocarbons, special additives are
sometimes necessary to improve flow.
Sulphur

• The sulphur atom is usually bound to the larger, more complex and
harder to burn hydrocarbon molecules although it is also present as a
dissolved gas called hydrogen sulphide (H2S), which smells like rotten
eggs. Chemical changes during storage often result in the heavier
compounds with a high sulphur content collecting on tank bottom
forming sludge. This is more important for large, stagnant storage of
residual fuels.
• Sulphur is a corrosive chemical in all its forms. It can corrode tanks or
lines from the inside out, which is impossible to assess by inspection of
the exterior. Sulphur -especially mercaptan sulphur - can also corrode
brass parts in the burner such as screens, valves and nozzles. It can form
a jelly-like corrosion product that can clog small parts in the burner.
 Corrosion

• Another, more focused indicator of corrosion, which detects the

presence of corrosive chemicals including sulphur, is the copper strip
test. This test is qualitative rather than quantitative and is used primarily
with the light, distillate fuel oils.
• In the test, a clean, polished copper strip is immersed in 100°C (212°F)
oil for 3 hours. The strip is then compared with reference strips
representing degrees of tarnish and corrosion. The rating system of #1 to
#4 - light orange to jet black - is referenced in standards. A maximum #1
test result is specified for all of the lighter, distillate fuel oils as well as
kerosene.

• This simple test can be conducted by an OBT in the field if excessive

corrosion problems are observed. A bared copper electrical wire left half
submerged overnight in a container of No. 2 fuel oil should not show any
corrosion.
Bottom Sediment and Water

• Water is heavier than oil and will settle to the bottom of storage tanks
unless the oil is agitated or contains sediment that acts as a binder to
keep the water in suspension. Water also becomes a breeding ground
for microscopic bacterial growth that can develop into jelly-like mats of
sufficient size to plug filters and burner parts.
• . These contaminates are blamed in some surveys for as much as 50% of
service calls on residential installations.
Colour and Odour

• Colour and odour are often raised as important indicators of the quality
of the fuel by technicians and customers - possibly because they are easy
to sense. Except for extraordinary contamination such as visible BSW or
gasoline odours, colour and odour are poor indicators of fuel properties
and qualities.
• A red dye is added to fuel oil to mark it as distinct from vehicle diesel
fuel, which is similar but has a road tax included in its price and, often, a
lower sulphur content (.05%). The colour tests are conducted prior to
adding the red dye. Recent studies indicate that the dye has no
appreciable affect on performance.
• If transparent, the lightness or darkness of No. 2 fuel oil is not a reliable
indicator of the oil's properties. Often light coloured No. 2 fuel oil is
mistakenly believed to be a superior product.
Additives

• Chemical additives to control or eliminate contamination of the fuel oil

are often added not only at the refinery but also at the bulk storage
depot and customer tank.
• Emulsifiers are often employed to break down the water and make it
more fluid in smaller quantities. De-oxidizer chemical treatments
prevent or reverse the chemical reaction of oil with air. Anti-bacterial
growth inhibitors kill microbe and algae growth in the bottom of tanks
where water allows the growth to occur.
• Modern installations now have their suction outlet in the base of the
tank or their two-pipe system separated to allow minute amounts of
water and sediment to pass to the filter and burner rather than to
accumulate.
Number 2 Fuel Oil
Used Oil or Waste Derived Fuel (WDF)

• Used engine, transmission, hydraulic and crankcase oil can be burned in

appliances specifically designed and approved for such heating use.
Used oil burners are becoming increasingly common in garages as an
economical method of heating with oils that were previously expensive
to dispose of.
• The properties of used oil depend upon the original source and level of
contamination resulting from their primary use prior to their fuel use.
• Water and metal contaminates are a concern but the filtering and burner
operation can handle reasonable amounts. Monthly or even weekly
cleaning and maintenance is often required to deal with the ash buildup
caused by contaminates. However, the most dangerous contaminate is
gasoline which, if present in sufficient quantity, can pose an explosion
hazard.
SUMMARY

• To be professional, an OBT must have a sound general knowledge of the

properties of all the grades of fuel oil encountered in the oil heat trade
• OBTs have little or no choice over the properties of the fuel oil burned in
the appliances that we install and service.
• Material safety data sheets and product specifications are available for
the asking from most suppliers and are valuable information resources