PW&O Research

Theories of motivation
Goal Theory:
In 1960's, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. This theory states that goal setting is
essentially linked to task performance.

It states that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task
performance.

There are necessary conditions that must be met to make goals effective:

1. Clarity: For goals to be motivating they need to be clear and they should be concise
2. Challenge: To be motivated, individuals need to feel that their goals are stretching and feel that achieving
them is a genuine achievement
3. Commitment: To be truly motivating, goals need to be accepted by the individual tasks with achieving them
4. Task complexity: Leaders should set goals at the right level of complexity. Leaders should use multiple goals
for complex tasks and objectives
5. Feedback: For individuals to be motivated by goals they need to understand how they are doing in relation to
them and have timely and accurate performance related feedback
 Goal Theory: (Cont.)
Ultimately, goals are about helping individuals or organizations achieve an objective. Motivation is often key in helping
individuals achieve their goals.

Goal setting can help significantly with behavior change at a personal level. Similarly, from an organizational perspective
goal-setting is essential for the effective steering and motivation of a group of individuals.

Type of goals

There are several different types of goals that individuals or organizations can work towards. These include process
related goals and outcome related goals. It’s helpful to have a mix of goals to focus on

1) Lag goals:
- Are core things that have been achieved
- Happen after a series of events
1) Lead goals:
- Are indicators that may correlate with a future achievement of lag goals
- Happen before a final outcome

Eg. the % of people wearing hard hats on a building site is a leading safety indicator. A lagging indicator is the output
measurement; the no. of accidents on a building site
Herzberg’s two factor theory
(two factors that motivate employees: job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction)

Hygiene: (extrinsic factors) Motivators: (intrinsic factors)

● Salary ● Recognition
● Job security ● Responsibility
● Working conditions ● Sense of achievement
● Relationship with peers ● Personal growth
● Company policies or ● Advancement: Motivation
administration ● The work itself
● Working condition
● Supervision

Hygiene (extrinsic factors): are not directly part of the work itself. These won’t encourage employees to work harder but they will cause them to become unmotivated if they are not
present.
Motivators (intrinsic factors): are directly related to the work itself which can encourage employees to work harder.
When we have the right motivators are present and the hygiene factors are acceptable, we have a chance to create a work environment that motivates people.
According to the Two-Factor Theory, there are four possible combinations:
1. High Hygiene + High Motivation: The ideal situation where employees are highly motivated and have few complaints.
2. High Hygiene + Low Motivation: Employees have few complaints but are not highly motivated. The job is viewed as a paycheck.
3. Low Hygiene + High Motivation: Employees are motivated but have a lot of complaints. A situation where the job is exciting and challenging but salaries and
work conditions are not up to par.
4. Low Hygiene + Low Motivation: This is the worst situation where employees are not motivated and have many complaints.
Herzberg’s two factor theory VS Maslow’s theory

The extrinsic factors equates the basic level in Maslow’s theory (psychological
needs, security and belonging), while the intrinsic factors equates the higher level
(Self esteem and self actualization)
Maslow Motivation Theory
The Hierarchy of Needs
Insights:

- Psychologist Abraham Maslow first

developed his famous theory of
individual development and motivation
in the 1940’s

- Maslow represented this theory as a

hierarchical triangle. This shows how
basic needs must be met before one
can “climb” the hierarchy, to address
more complex needs.

- Broadly, as one set of needs is met,

the next level of needs become more
of a motivator to an individual and a
satisfied need is not a motivator.

- Self-actualization stimulates a desire

for more due to what Maslow
explained as “peak experiences”,
created by the overall effect of
reaching one’s full potential.
Maslow Motivation Theory
Critiques of Maslow’s theory

There have been numerous academic criticisms of the theory, some of which are explained
below:

1- Sample Size & Bias:

Critiques are largely based on the relative narrowness of his original research data, and arguably subjective selection
of the sample. Maslow’s original work was based on observations of healthy, college students, representing only 1% of
the overall population.

2- Overlooking Cultural Factors:

Inferring the fixed rankings of a universal human hierarchy of needs from his research ignores a wide range of social
factors which differentiate people all across the world.

3- Doesn’t Factorize Change:

Critics have argued that Maslow’s theory does not allow for changes in personal circumstances or attitudes. These
may occur due to changes or pressures from any external factors
 Expectancy Theory
Vroom theory in 1964 ,
-It argues that motivation depends on how much we want something (Expectation) and how likely we think we
are to get it (VALENCE )
- MOTIVATION = E x V
Porter and Lawler’s model ,adds to existing theory by suggesting that performance is
a product not only of effort but also of the individual’s abilities and characteristics together with the
individual’s role perceptions.
Definitions:
- MOTIVATION = E x I x V
* Effort to performance >> person’s perception of probability that effort will lead to a successful performance .
* Performance to outcome >> INSTRUMENTALITY is person’s perception of performance to outcome.
* outcome << the result of performance.
* valence << the value of the outcome.

The above values have to positive (above zero).

 Expectancy Theory
The basic Expectancy framework suggest that three conditions that must be met before motivated
behaviour occurs :

1-effort to performance expectancy must be above zero.

2- performance to outcome instrumentalities must be above zero.

3- the sum of valences for the potential outcomes relevant to the person must be positive.

- The people are different, they are unlikely to value the same outcome equally.

Therefore, managers would need to figure out what rewards each employee wants and how valuable
those rewards are to each person, measure the various expectancies and finally adjust the
relationships to create motivations.
Expectancy Theory
How to use the expectancy theory of motivation in the workplace

1. Make sure your promises to your team align with company policy
2. Create challenging but achievable goals
3. Ensure the assigned tasks match the team member’s skill set
4. Set clear connections between performance and reward
5. Make reward distribution fair and logical