at Workplace

with Nyaruba, C.M

Mzumbe University
Chapter Learning Objectives
 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
– Describe the three elements of motivation.
– Identify four early theories of motivation and evaluate their
applicability today.
– Apply the predictions of Cognitive Evaluation theory to intrinsic
and extrinsic rewards.
– Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and Management by
Objectives.
– Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory.
– Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity
theory.
– Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating
employees.
– Compare contemporary theories of motivation.
– Explain to what degree motivation theories are culture-bound.
I think a lot of us assume that most people
work for a salary. Of course, we all work
for a salary at some level.
But what I am interested in exploring is
what other factors motivate people to work
and especially to commit themselves to
achieve more than should be expected.

2
Motivation?
Activity
 Brainstorm- what is motivation?
 On your own - write down the 3 factors
that are most important to improve your
motivation. Hand these to the guy next to
you.
 With the guy sitting next to you– discuss
the key factors that you think have most
impact on poor staff performance. Identify
3-5 factors that are most relevant in your
work.

The Lecturer will tell on how to provide

feedback….
4
The first big question(s)....
Why do some people climb
mountains?
While others run?
And others
just sit?
And why do millions
of people go to work
each day?
 “Every morning in Africa, a gazelle wakes up. It
knows it must outrun the fastest
lion or it will be killed.
Every morning in Africa, a lion wakes up. It knows
it must run faster than the slowest gazelle, or it
will starve.
It doesn’t matter whether you’re a lion or gazelle -
when the sun comes up, you’d better be running.” -
Anonymous
 I will Run
FASTER than the
Slowest Deer…..

13 January 2016 11
 I will Run
FASTER than
the FASTEST
Leopard.

12
 YOU BETTER BE RUNNING !!!
Motivation to save its own life is the reason
for RUNNING !!!

13 January 2016 13
13 January 2016 15
Motivation
is the force that drives our actions
And with the right
motivation

What
can’t we do?
Defining Motivation cont..
The result of the interaction between the individual and the
situation.

The processes that account for an individual’s

intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.

Three key elements:

– Intensity – how hard a person tries
– Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and consistent
with, organizational goals
– Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort
 Definition:

Motivation is an
inner force which
drives an
individual to a
certain action and
determines human
behavior.
It is derived from the Latin root word “motor”
which means to move.
Nature of Motivation
The Nature of Motivation
Motivation
– The psychological forces acting on an
individual that determine:
• Direction—possible behaviors the individual could
engage in
• Effort—how hard the individual will work
• Persistence—whether the individual will keep trying
or give up
– Explains why people behave the way they do in
organizations
The Nature of Motivation (cont’d)
 Intrinsically Motivated Behavior
– Behavior that is performed for its own sake.
• The source of the motivation that comes from
actually engaging in the behavior.
• The sense of accomplishment and achievement
derived from doing the work itself
 Extrinsically Motivated Behavior
– Behavior that is performed to acquire material
or social rewards or to avoid punishment.
• The source of the motivation is the consequences of
the behavior and not the behavior itself.
Outcomes and Inputs
Outcome
– Anything a person gets from a job or an
organization
• Pay, job security, autonomy,
accomplishment
Input
– Anything a person contributes to his or her job
or organization
• Time, effort, skills, knowledge, work
behaviors
The Motivation Equation
Theories of Motivation
Theories of motivation
Content theories
Process theories
Content Perspectives on
Motivation
Early Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they
do form the basis for contemporary theories and
are still used by practicing managers.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

– Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth)
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Assumptions
– Individuals cannot
Higher Order move to the next
higher level until
Internal all needs at the
current (lower)
level are satisfied
Lower Order – Must move in
External hierarchical order
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Physiological : Safety: Social:
Includes hunger, Includes security Includes
thirst, shelter, sex, and protection affection,
and other bodily from physical belongingness,
needs. and emotional acceptance, and
harm. friendship.

Esteem:
Includes internal esteem factors
such as self-respect, autonomy,
and achievement; and external
esteem factors such as status,
recognition, and attention.
Self-actualization:
The drive to become one is
capable of becoming;
includes growth,
achieving one’s potential,
and self-fulfillment.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Applying Maslow’s Theory
 Various employees will be motivated by completely
different needs
 Leaders must understand the current level of needs of
each employee
 Examples:

Physiological Motivators
Esteem Motivators
Self-Actualization Motivators
Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory
A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical
research.
Three groups of core needs:
– Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)
– Relatedness (Maslow: social and status)
– Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)
Removed the hierarchical assumption
– Can be motivated by all three at once

Popular, but not accurate, theory

ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Concepts:
More than one need can
be operative at the same
time.

Core Needs If a higher-level need

cannot be fulfilled, the
Existence: provision of basic desire to satisfy a lower-
material requirements. level need increases.
Relatedness: desire for
relationships.
Growth: desire for personal
development.
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
 Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X
(basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).
– Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
– The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees

 No empirical evidence to support this theory.

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
Assumptions of Theory X
 Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever
possible, will attempt to avoid it;
 Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced,
controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve
goals;
 Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal
direction whenever possible;
 Most workers place security above all other factors
associated with work and will display little ambition.
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
Assumptions of Theory Y
 Employees can view work as being as natural as rest
or play;
 People will exercise self-direction and self-control if
they are committed to the objectives;
 The average person can learn to accept, even seek,
responsibility;
 The ability to make innovative decisions is widely
dispersed throughout the population and is not
necessarily the sole province of those in management
positions.
Frederick Herzberg Two-Factor Theory
Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites
but separate constructs

Extrinsic and Intrinsic and

Related to Related to
Dissatisfaction Satisfaction
Factors characterizing
events on the job that led
to extreme job
dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events

on the job that led to extreme
job satisfaction

Comparison of
Satisfiers and
Dissatisfiers
Criticisms of Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg says that hygiene factors must be met to remove
dissatisfaction. If motivators are given, then satisfaction
can occur.

Herzberg is limited by his procedure

– Participants had self-serving bias
Reliability of raters questioned
– Bias or errors of observation
No overall measure of satisfaction was used
Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong
relationship between satisfaction and productivity
McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
 Need for Achievement (nAch)
– The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed
 Need for Power (nPow)
– The need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise
 Need for Affiliation (nAff)
– The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
 People have varying levels of each of the three needs.
– Hard to measure
David McClelland’s Theory of Needs, Contd.,

High Achievers will be Motivated, if

Performance Predictions for High nAch
 People with a high need for achievement are likely to:
– Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success,
avoiding very low- or high-risk situations
– Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal
responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
– Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus.
Most good general managers do NOT have a high nAch
– Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial
success
 Good research support, but it is not a very practical
theory
Process Perspectives
on Motivation
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
 Cognitive Evaluation Theory
 Goal-Setting Theory
– Management by Objectives (MBO)
 Self-Efficacy Theory
– Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning
Theory
 Reinforcement Theory
 Equity Theory
 Expectancy Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been
previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the
overall level of motivation
Major Implications for work rewards
– Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent
– Extrinsic rewards decrease intrinsic rewards
– Pay should be noncontingent on performance
– Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible rewards
reduce it
Self-concordance
– When the personal reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with
personal interests and core values (intrinsic motivation), people
are happier and more successful
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke, 1960s)
Goal Setting Theory
Focuses on identifying the types of goals
that are effective in producing high levels of
motivation and explaining why goals have
these effects.
Considers how managers can ensure that
workers focus their inputs in the direction of
high performance and the achievement of
organizational goals.
Goal Setting Theory
 Goal
– What a person is trying to accomplish.
 Characteristics of Motivating Goals
– Specific and not vague in providing direction
– Difficult but not impossible to attain
– Accepted and committed to by workers
– Feedback on goal attainment is important.
 Goals point out what is important to the firm.
– Workers should be encouraged to develop action
plans to attain goals.
 Goal Setting: Key Concepts

Goal setting The process of establishing goals

Goal Specific target that a person, team, or

group is attempting to accomplish
Goal specificity Degree of quantitative precision
(clarity) of the goal
Goal difficulty Level of performance required to
achieve the goal
Goal intensity Process of setting the goal or of
determining how to reach it
Goal Amount of effort used to achieve a goal
commitment
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke, 1960s)

Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a

major source of work motivation. Goals tell an employee what
needs to be done and how much effort will need to be
expanded. Specific goals increase performance; that difficult
goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do
easy goals.
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke, 1960s)
Factors influencing goal – performance
relationship
– Goal Commitment
– Self-Efficacy
– Task Characteristics
– Culture
Edwin Locke’s (1960s) Goal-Setting Theory
 Basic Premise:
– That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated
feedback, lead to higher performance
 Difficult Goals:
– Focus and direct attention
– Energize the person to work harder
– Difficulty increases persistence
– Force people to be more effective and efficient
 Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
– Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
– Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
– Culture (best match is in North America)
How Does Goal Setting Work
 Goals Direct Attention: Relevance and importance
 Goals Regulate Effort:
 Goals Increase Persistence: extent to which effort
is expended on a task over time. It takes effort to
run 100m, it takes persistence to run a 26-mile
marathon. Persistent people tend to see obstacles
as challenges to be overcome rather than as
reasons to fail.
 Goal Fosters Strategies and Action Plans:
 Examples of Goal Setting at Work
Developing a new software program within
4-6 months to detect malicious viruses on
the Internet
Landing 5 new customers or increasing
sales of existing customers by 10% over the
next 12 months
Decreasing waste in the manufacturing
process by 20% over the next 3 years
 Goal Setting Applied to Organizations

Goal Characteristics Performance Rewards

• Clarity Desired by Preferred by
• Meaningful Organization Individual or Team
• Challenging

Moderators
• Ability
• Commitment
• Feedback
Practical application of Goal Setting: Steps:
 Set SMART goals: Input sources;
– Time and motion studies
– Average past performance of job holder
– Employee and manager may set goal participatively, through give-
and-take negotiation
– By conducting external and internal benchmarking
– Overall strategy of a company e.g., to become the lowest-cost
producer.
 Promote Goal Commitment: Techniques;
– Provide an explanation for why the organization is implementing a
goal-setting program
– Present the corporate goals, and explain how and why an
individual’s personal goals support them
 – Have employees establish their own goals and action plans. encourage
them to set challenging, stretch goals. Goals should not be impossible
– Train managers in how to conduct participative goal-setting sessions
and train employees in how to develop effective action plans
– Be supportive and do not use goals to threaten employees
– Set goals that are under the employees’ control and provide them with
the necessary resources
– Provide monetary incentives or other rewards for accomplishing goals
 Provide Support and Feedback
– Ensure each employee has necessary abilities and information to reach
his or her goals (Motivation without knowledge is useless)
– Training employees
– Attention to employees’ perceptions of effort ->performance
expectancies, self-efficacy and valence of rewards
Management By Objectives
Implementation: Management by Objectives
 MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
 Goals must be:
– Tangible
– Verifiable
– Measurable
 Corporate goals are broken down into smaller,
more specific goals at each level of organization.
 Four common ingredients to MBO programs:
– Goal specificity
– Participative decision making
– Explicit time period
– Performance feedback
Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
 An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.
– Higher efficacy is related to:
• Greater confidence
• Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
• Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
– Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory.

Increased Confidence

Given Hard Goal Higher Performance

Higher Self-Set Goal

Increasing Self-Efficacy
 Enactive mastery
– Most important source of efficacy
– Gaining relevant experience with task or job
– “Practice makes perfect”
 Vicarious/vivid modeling
– Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
– Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him-
or herself
 Verbal persuasion
– Motivation through verbal conviction
– Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies
 Arousal
– Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task
– Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement Theory

 A counterpoint to Goal-setting theory is Reinforcement

Theory. The former is a cognitive approach, proposing that
an individual’s purposes direct his or her action.
 This theory argues, reinforcement conditions behavior.
Behavior is a function of its consequences.
 Reinforcement theorists see behavior as being
environmentally caused.
 Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the
individual and concentrates solely on what happens to a
person when he or she takes some action.
Reinforcement Theory

Concepts:
Behavior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by
providing (controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Reinforcement Theory
 Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a
behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one.

– Behavior is environmentally caused

– Thought (internal cogitative event) is not important
• Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
– Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforcers
– Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of
behavior
– Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely
to be the sole cause
Job Design Theory
Job Design Theory

Job
Characteristics:
Characteristics
1. Skill variety
Model 2. Task identity
Identifies five job 3. Task significance
characteristics and 4. Autonomy
their relationship to 5. Feedback
personal and work
outcomes.
Job Design Theory (cont’d)
Job Characteristics Model
Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given,
directly affect three psychological states of
employees:
Knowledge of results
Meaningfulness of work
Personal feelings of responsibility for results
Increases in these psychological states result in
increased motivation, performance, and job
satisfaction.
The Job Characteristics Model
Job Design Theory (cont’d)
Skill Variety
The degree to which a job requires a variety of
different activities (how may different skills are
used in a given day, week, month?).
Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of
a whole and identifiable piece of work (from
beginning to end).

Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial
impact on the lives or work of other people.
Job Design Theory (cont’d)
Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial
freedom and discretion to the individual in
scheduling the work and in determining the
procedures to be used in carrying it out.

Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activities
required by a job results in the individual obtaining
direct and clear information about the effectiveness
of his or her performance.
Computing a Motivating Potential Score

People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are

generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in
influencing personal and work outcome variables rather
than influencing them directly.
Adam’s Equity Theory
Adams’ Equity Theory
 Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs
of relevant others.
– When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no
tension as the situation is considered fair
– When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
• Underrewarded states cause anger
• Overrewarded states cause guilt
– Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into
equity
 Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others”
 Can be four different situations:
– Self-Inside
• The person’s experience in a different job in
the same organization
– Self-Outside
• The person’s experience in a different job in a different
organization
– Other-Inside
• Another individual or group within the organization
– Other-Outside
• Another individual or group outside of the organization
Reactions to Inequity
 Employee behaviors to create equity:
– Change inputs (slack off)
– Change outcomes (increase output)
– Distort/change perceptions of self
– Distort/change perceptions of others
– Choose a different referent person
– Leave the field (quit the job)
 Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
– Paid by time:
• Over rewarded employees produce more
• Under rewarded employees produce less with low quality
– Paid by quality:
• Over rewarded employees give higher quality
• Under rewarded employees make more of low quality
Justice and Equity Theory

Overall perception
of what is fair in the
workplace.
Exchange Theory
 Exchange Theory
Suggests that members of an
organization engage in
reasonably predictable give-and-
take relationships (exchanges)
with each other
– e.g., an employee gives time and effort in
exchange for pay
– e.g., management provides pleasant working
conditions in exchange for employee loyalty
Psychological Contract
 Psychological Contract (1 of 2)

An unwritten agreement between the

individual and the organization which
specifies what each expects to give and
receive from the other
These implicit agreements may take
precedence over written agreements
May focus on exchanges involving:
satisfaction, challenging work, fair treatment,
loyalty, and opportunity to be creative
 Psychological Contract (2 of 2)

Managing the psychological contract is a key

aspect of most managers’ jobs
The more attuned the manager is to the
needs and expectations of subordinates, the
greater the number of matches that are likely
to exist and be maintained in the
psychological contract
This can positively impact the direction,
intensity, and persistence of motivation in
the organization
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)
Argues that an employee will be motivated to exert a
high level of effort when
• he or she believes that effort will lead to a good
performance appraisal; Effort-performance
relationship
• that a good appraisal will lead to organizational
rewards such as bonus, a salary increase, or a
promotion; Performance-reward relationship and
• that the rewards will satisfy the employee’s personal
goals. The theory, therefore, focuses on three
relationships: Rewards-personal goals relationship.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act
will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Expectancy of Instrumentality Valuation of the
performance of success in reward in
success getting reward employee’s eyes
Integrating Contemporary Motivation Theories

 Based on Expectancy Theory

Motivation techniques
Motivation techniques

How can a leader

and manager
motivate their staff?
How can an
employee can
motivate himself?
How can a leader/manager motivate their
staff??
How can a leader/manager motivate their staff??
#1. ASK
#2. Listen
#3. Regular Recognition
# 4. Have A Little Fun
#5. Foster Fair Competition
#6. Be Friendly With Everyone, But Don’t
Become Friends
#7. Sharing
#8. Coach And Accept Coaching
How can an employee can motivate himself
How can an employee can motivate himself
Self-motivation
 How to motivate yourself

 Take inspiration
from others
 Think positively
 Reward yourself
 Seeking support
 Do something
different
Summary, Global and Managerial
implications
 Global Implications
 Motivation theories are often culture-bound.
– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Order of needs is not universal
– McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
• nAch presupposes a willingness to accept risk and performance
concerns – not universal traits
– Adams’ Equity Theory
• A desire for equity is not universal
• “Each according to his need” – socialist/former communists
 Desire for interesting work seems to be universal.
– There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory may be universal
Summary and Managerial Implications
 Need Theories (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland,
Herzberg)
– Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior
 Goal-Setting Theory
– While limited in scope, good predictor
 Reinforcement Theory
– Powerful predictor in many work areas
 Equity Theory
– Best known for research in organizational justice
 Expectancy Theory
– Good predictor of performance variables but shares many of
the assumptions as rational decision making
Performance Dimensions
Conclusions for Managers
 Conclusions for Managers (1 of 2)

1. Managers can influence the motivation

state of employees
– If performance needs to be improved, managers
must intervene and help create an atmosphere that
encourages, supports, and sustains improvement
2. Managers should be sensitive to variations
in employees’ needs, abilities, and goals
– Managers must also consider differences in
preferences (valences) for rewards
 Conclusions for Managers (2 of 2)
3. Continual monitoring of needs, abilities,
goals, and preferences of employees is
each individual manager’s responsibility
– It is not just the domain of human resources
managers only
4. Managers need to work on providing
employees with jobs that offer task
challenge, diversity, and a variety of
opportunities for need satisfaction
 Robbins and Judge
(2009), Organizational
Behaviour (13 Ed),
th

Prentice-Hall Inc