Anatomy and Physiology
Chapter 9: Skeletal System
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Introduction
●
Skeletal tissues form bones—the
organs of the skeletal system
●
The relationship of bones to each
other and to other body structures
provides a basis for understanding the
function of other organ systems
●
The adult skeleton is composed of
206 separate bones
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Divisions of the Skeleton
(Figure 9-1; Table 9-1)
●
Axial skeleton—the 80 bones of the
head, neck, and torso; composed of 74
bones that form the upright axis of the
body and six tiny middle ear bones
●
Appendicular skeleton—the 126 bones
that form the appendages to the axial
skeleton; the upper and lower
extremities
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Axial Skeleton
●
Skull—made up of 28 bones in two
major divisions: cranial bones and facial
bones (Figures 9-2 to 9-7; Table 9-3)
➢
Cranial bones
●
Frontal bone (Figure 9-8, C)
➢
Forms the forehead and anterior part
of the top of the cranium
➢
Contains the frontal sinuses
➢
Forms the upper portion of the orbits
➢
Forms the coronal suture with the two
parietal bones
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Axial Skeleton
➢
Cranial bones (cont)
●
Parietal bones (Figure 9-8, A)
➢
Form the bulging top of the cranium
➢
Form several sutures: lambdoid
suture with the occipital bone;
squamous suture with the temporal
bone and part of the sphenoid; and
coronal suture with the frontal bone
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Axial Skeleton
➢
Cranial bones (cont)
●
Temporal bones (Figure 9-8, B)
➢
Form the bulging top of the cranium
➢
Form several sutures: lambdoid suture with the
occipital bone; squamous suture with the
temporal bone and part of the sphenoid; and
coronal suture with the frontal bone
●
Occipital bone (Figure 9-8, D)
➢
Forms the lower, posterior part of the skull
➢
Forms immovable joints with three other cranial
bones and a movable joint with the first cervical
vertebra
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Axial Skeleton
➢
Cranial bones (cont)
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Sphenoid bone (Figure 9-8, E)
➢
A bat-shaped bone located in the
central portion of the cranial floor
➢
Anchors the frontal, parietal, occipital,
and ethmoid bones and forms part of
the lateral wall of the cranium and part
of the floor of each orbit (Figure 9-7)
➢
Contains the sphenoid sinuses
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Axial Skeleton
➢
Cranial bones (cont)
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Ethmoid bone (Figure 9-8, F)
➢
A complex, irregular bone that lies
anterior to the sphenoid and posterior
to the nasal bones
➢
Forms the anterior cranial floor, medial
orbit walls, upper parts of the nasal
septum, and sidewalls of the nasal
cavity
➢
The cribriform plate is located in the
ethmoid
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Axial Skeleton
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Skull (cont)
➢
Facial bones (Table 9-4)
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Maxilla (upper jaw) (Figure 9-8, H)
➢
Two maxillae form the keystone of the
face
➢
Maxillae articulate with each other and
with the nasal, zygomatic, inferior
concha, and palatine bones
➢
Forms parts of the orbital floors, roof of
the mouth, and floor and sidewalls of the
nose
➢
Contains maxillary sinuses
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Axial Skeleton
➢
Facial bones (cont)
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Mandible (lower jaw) (Figure 9-8, M)
➢
Largest, strongest bone of the face
➢
Forms the only movable joint of the
skull with the temporal bone
●
Zygomatic bone (Figure 9-8, I)
➢
Shapes the cheek and forms the
outer margin of the orbit
➢
Forms the zygomatic arch with the
zygomatic process of the temporal
bones
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Axial Skeleton
➢
Facial bones (cont)
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Nasal bone (Figures 9-8, L and 9-10)
➢
Both nasal bones form the upper part
of the bridge of the nose, whereas
cartilage forms the lower part
➢
Articulates with the ethmoid, nasal
septum, frontal bone, maxillae, and
the other nasal bone
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Axial Skeleton
➢
Facial bones (cont)
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Lacrimal bone (Figure 9-8, K)
➢
Paper-thin bone that lies just posterior
and lateral to each nasal bone
➢
Forms the nasal cavity and medial
wall of the orbit
➢
Contains a groove for the
nasolacrimal (tear) duct
➢
Articulates with the maxilla, frontal,
and ethmoid bones
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Axial Skeleton
➢
Facial bones (cont)
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Palatine bone (Figure 9-8, J)
➢
Two bones form the posterior part of
the hard palate
➢
Vertical portion forms the lateral wall
of the posterior part of each nasal
cavity
➢
Articulates with the maxillae and the
sphenoid bone
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Axial Skeleton
➢
Facial bones (cont)
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Inferior nasal conchae (turbinates)
➢
Form the lower edge projecting into the
nasal cavity and form the nasal meatus
➢
Articulate with ethmoid, lacrimal, maxillary,
and palatine bones
●
Vomer bone (Figure 9-8, G)
➢
Forms the posterior portion of the nasal
septum
➢
Articulates with the sphenoid, ethmoid,
palatine, and maxillae
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Axial Skeleton
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Eye orbits (Figure 9-7)
➢
Right and left eye orbits
●
Contain eyes, associated eye
muscles, lacrimal apparatus,
blood vessels, and nerves
●
Thin and fragile orbital walls
separate orbital structures from
the cranial and nasal cavities and
paranasal sinuses
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Axial Skeleton
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Fetal skull (Figure 9-11)
➢
Characterized by unique anatomical
features not seen in adult skull
➢
Fontanels or “soft spots” (4) allow
the skull to “mold” during the birth
process and also allow for rapid
growth of the brain (Table 9-5)
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Axial Skeleton
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Fetal skull (cont)
➢
Permits differential growth or appearance of
skull components over time
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Face—smaller proportion of total cranium at
birth {1/8} than in adult {½}
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Head at birth is {¼} the total height; at
maturity about {1/8} body height
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Sutures appear with skeletal maturity (Table
9-5)
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Paranasal sinuses—change in size and
placement with skeletal maturity (Figure 9-9)
●
Appearance of deciduous and, later,
permanent teeth
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Axial Skeleton
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Hyoid bone (Figure 9-12)
➢
U-shaped bone located just above the
larynx and below the mandible
➢
Suspended from the styloid processes
of the temporal bone
➢
Only bone in the body that articulates
with no other bones
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Axial Skeleton
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Vertebral column (Figure 9-13)
➢
Forms the flexible longitudinal axis
of the skeleton
➢
Consists of 24 vertebrae plus the
sacrum and coccyx
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Axial Skeleton
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Vertebral column (cont)
➢
Characteristics of the vertebrae (Figure 9-14; Table 9-6)
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All vertebrae, except the first, have a flat, rounded body
anteriorly and centrally, a spinous process posteriorly, and
two transverse processes laterally
●
All but the sacrum and coccyx have a vertebral foramen
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Second cervical vertebrae has an upward projection, the
dens, to allow rotation of the head
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Seventh cervical vertebra has a long, blunt spinous
process
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Each thoracic vertebra has articular facets for the ribs
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Axial Skeleton
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Vertebral column (cont)
➢
Vertebral column as a whole articulated
with the head, ribs, and iliac bones
➢
Individual vertebrae articulate with each
other in joints between their bodies and
between their articular processes
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Axial Skeleton
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Sternum (Figure 9-15)
➢
Dagger-shaped bone in the middle of the
anterior chest wall made up of three
parts:
●
Manubrium—the upper handle part
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Body—middle blade part
●
Xiphoid process—blunt cartilaginous
lower tip, which ossifies during adult
life
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Axial Skeleton
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Sternum (cont)
➢
Manubrium articulates with the clavicle
and first rib
➢
Next nine ribs join the body of the
sternum, either directly or indirectly, by
means of the costal cartilages
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Axial Skeleton
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Ribs (Figures 9-15 and 9-16)
➢
Twelve pairs of ribs, with the vertebral
column and sternum, form the thorax
➢
Each rib articulates with the body and
transverse process of its corresponding
thoracic vertebra
➢
Ribs 2 through 9 articulate with the body of
the vertebra above
➢
From its vertebral attachment, each rib
curves outward, then forward and downward
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Axial Skeleton
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Ribs (cont)
➢
Rib attachment to the sternum:
●
Ribs 1 through 8 join a costal
cartilage that attaches it to the
sternum
●
Costal cartilage of ribs 8 through 10
joins the cartilage of the rib above
to be indirectly attached to the
sternum
●
Ribs 11 and 12 are floating ribs
because they do not attach even
indirectly to the sternum
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Appendicular Skeleton
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Upper extremity (Table 9-7)
➢
Consists of the bones of the shoulder girdle,
upper and lower parts of the arm, wrist, and
hand
➢
Shoulder girdle (Figure 9-17)
●
Made up of the scapula and clavicle
●
Clavicle forms the only bony joint with
the trunk, the sternoclavicular joint
●
At its distal end, the clavicle articulates
with the acromion process of the
scapula
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Appendicular Skeleton
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Upper extremity (cont)
➢
Humerus (Figures 9-18 and 9-19)
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The long bone of the upper part of the arm
●
Articulates proximally with the glenoid
fossa of the scapula and distally with the
radius and ulna
➢
Ulna
●
The long bone found on the little finger side
of the forearm
●
Articulates proximally with the humerus
and radius and distally with a
fibrocartilaginous disk
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Appendicular Skeleton
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Upper extremity (cont)
➢
Carpal bones (Figure 9-20)
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Eight small bones that form the wrist
●
Carpal bones are bound closely and firmly by
ligaments and form two rows of four carpals each
➢
Proximal row is made up of the pisiform,
triquetrum, lunate, and scaphoid
➢
Distal row is made up of the hamate, capitate,
trapezoid, and trapezium
●
The joints between the radius and carpal bones
allow wrist and hand movements
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Appendicular Skeleton
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Upper extremity (cont)
➢
Metacarpal bones
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Form the framework of the hand
●
The thumb metacarpal forms the
most freely movable joint with the
carpal bones
●
Heads of the metacarpal bones (the
knuckles) articulate with the
phalanges
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Appendicular Skeleton
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Lower extremity
➢
Consists of the bones of the hip, thigh, leg,
ankle, and foot (Table 9-8)
➢
Pelvic girdle is made up of the sacrum and the
two coxal bones bound tightly by strong
ligaments (Figure 9-21)
●
A stable circular base that supports the trunk
and attaches the lower extremities to it
●
Each coxal bone is made up of three bones that
fuse together (Figure 9-22):
➢
Ilium—largest and uppermost
➢
Ischium—strongest and lowermost
➢
Pubis—anterior most
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Appendicular Skeleton
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Lower extremity (cont)
➢
Femur—longest and heaviest bone in the
body (Figure 9-23)
➢
Patella—largest sesamoid bone in the body
➢
Tibia
●
The larger, stronger, and more medially and
superficially located of the two leg bones
●
Articulates proximally with the femur to form
the knee joint
●
Articulates distally with the fibula and talus
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Appendicular Skeleton
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Lower extremity (cont)
➢
Fibula
●
The smaller, more laterally and
deeply placed of the two leg
bones
●
Articulates with the tibia
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Appendicular Skeleton
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Lower extremity (cont)
➢
Foot (Figures 9-24 and 9-25)
●
Structure is similar to that of the hand with
adaptations for supporting weight
●
Foot bones are held together to form spring
arches
➢
Medial longitudinal arch is made up of
the calcaneus, talus, navicular,
cuneiforms, and medial three metatarsal
bones
➢
Lateral longitudinal arch is made up of
the calcaneus, cuboid, and fourth and
fifth metatarsal bones
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Skeletal Differences Between
Men and Women
●
Male skeleton is larger and heavier
than female skeleton
●
Pelvic differences (Figure 9-26; Table
9-9)
➢
Male pelvis—deep and funnel-shaped
with a narrow pubic arch
➢
Female pelvis—shallow, broad, and
flaring with a wider pubic arch
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Cycle of Life: The Skeletal System
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Changes in the skeleton begin at
fertilization and continue over a lifetime;
changes can be positive or negative
●
Incompletely ossified skeleton in children
provides the resiliency needed to
withstand stress without breaking easily
●
Dense bone structure in young and
middle adulthood permits bearing heavy
loads
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Cycle of Life: The Skeletal System
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In later adulthood, reduced bone
density makes fractures more likely
and causes changes in posture and
overall height
●
Details of aging effects are found in
Mechanisms of Disease section
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The Big Picture: Skeletal System
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Skeletal system is a good example of
increasing structural hierarchy in the body
➢
Skeletal tissues grouped into discrete organs—
bones
➢
Skeletal system consists of bones, blood vessels,
nerves, and other tissues grouped to form a
complex operational unit
➢
Integration of skeletal system with other body
organ systems permits homeostasis to occur
➢
Skeletal system more than a collection of
individual bones—it represents a complex and
interdependent functional unit of the body
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