Conservation of natural resources

18CV656

MODULE 3

AIR
INTRODUCTION
• Air is a mixture of many gases and tiny dust particles. It is the clear gas in
which living things live and breathe. It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has
mass and weight, because it is matter. The weight of air creates atmospheric
pressure.
• Air is one of the most important constituent of our environment. Average human
being requires about 12kg of air each day, which is nearly 12-15 times greater
than the amount of food consumed.
• Eventually , even a small concentration of pollutants present in the air becomes
more harmful to human health.
• The introduction of harmful gases, dust particles and intoxicated fumes in the
atmosphere more than the permissible limit which might bring harm to living
organisms is called air pollution
COMPOSITIONS OF AIR
• Air is a mixture of gases which makes up the Earth’s atmosphere.
These gases are colorless and odorless and hence, we can’t see them
but only feel them.
• The atmosphere is an ocean of these gases. It consists of 78%
nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1 % other gases and water vapour.
• The composition of air does not change as you travel through the
layers of the atmosphere. What changes is the number of molecules.
The air molecules decrease and become less.
• The moisture content varies from place to place. Arid regions have
less moisture content as compared to wetlands.
COMPOSITIONS OF AIR
 Composition of Air
Element Volume by % Weight by % PPM(Parts per Symbol of the Molecular
Million) by Element Weight of the
Volume element

Nitrogen 78.08 75.47 780790 N2 28.01

Oxygen 20.95 23.20 209445 O2 32.00
Argon 0.93 1.28 9339 Ar 39.95
Carbon Dioxide 0.040 0.062 404 CO2 44.01

Neon 0.0018 0.0012 18.21 Ne 20.18

Helium 0.0005 0.00007 5.24 He 4.00
Krypton 0.0001 0.0003 1.14 Kr 83.80
Hydrogen 0.00005 Negligible 0.50 H2 2.02

Xenon 8.7 x 10-6 0.00004 0.087 Xe 131.30

Other Components of Air
Some other components of air are mentioned below:
• Sulfur dioxide(SO2) – 1.0 ppm
• Methane(CH4 )2.0 ppm
• Nitrous oxide(N2O) – 0.5 ppm
• Ozone(O3) 0 to 0.07 ppm
• Nitrogen dioxide(NO2) – 0.02 ppm
• Iodine(I2) 0.01 ppm
• Carbon monoxide(CO) – 0 to trace ppm
• Ammonia(NH3) 0 to trace ppm
• Mobile sources account for more than half of all the air pollution in
the United States and the primary mobile source of air pollution is the
automobile, according to the Environmental Protection Agency.
• Stationary sources, like power plants, emit large amounts of pollution
from a single location, these are also known as point sources of
pollution.
• Area sources are made up of lots of smaller pollution sources that
aren't a big deal by themselves but when considered as a group can be.
• Natural sources can sometimes be significant but do not usually create
ongoing air pollution problems like the other source types can.
Sources of air pollution
Types of Sources
There are four main types of air pollution sources:
• MOBILE SOURCES – such as cars, buses, planes, trucks, and trains
• STATIONARY SOURCES – such as power plants, oil refineries,
industrial facilities, and factories
• AREA SOURCES – such as agricultural areas, cities, and wood
burning fireplaces
• NATURAL SOURCES – such as wind-blown dust, wildfires, and
volcanoes
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTION
• Air pollutants are classified as
1. Primary pollutants and
2. Secondary pollutants
• Primary air pollutants are emitted directly into the atmosphere by the
original source. carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter,
sulfur oxides, and volatile organic compounds.
• Secondary air pollutants are formed because of reactions between
primary pollutants and other elements in the atmosphere, such as the
ozone, which is formed when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides
(NOx) combine in the presence of sunlight; NO2, which is formed as NO
combines with oxygen in the air; and acid rain, which is formed when
sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with water.
Particulate Gaseous Pollutants
Pollutants
1.Lead 1.Carbon monoxide •Volatile organic
2.Fly Ash (CO) compounds (VOCs)
3.Metallic Oxides 2.Carbon dioxide (CO2) •Benzene
4.Nanoparticles 3.Chlorofluorocarbons •Ethylene
(CFCs) •Biological pollutants
4.Ozone (O3) •Asbestos
5.Nitrogen oxide (NOx) •Radon
6.Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Particulate Pollutants
• The particles that pollute the air by being suspended can be defined as particulate
pollutants.
• These particles are results of some anthropogenic processes like vehicles,
industries, construction sites/activities, etc. or natural sources like pollen,
volcanic eruptions, natural gaseous precursors, etc.
• Their size ranges from 0.001 to 500 micrometers (µm) in diameter.

Nanoparticles (NP)
• Nanoparticles have diameters less than 100 Nanometers (10-9).
• NP is responsible for the formation of dust clouds, Ozone depletion,
environmental hydroxyl radical concentration, and stratospheric temperature
changes.
Fly Ash

• Fly Ash is particles of oxides and other heavy metals. The majority of
them are aluminum silicate (in large amounts), silicon dioxide (SiO2),
and calcium oxide (CaO).
• Thermal power plants are a major source of Fly Ash pollutants.
• Its deposition in agricultural fields can cause heavy metal
contamination of crops and vegetables.
• The Ministry of Environment and Forests has made it mandatory to
use Fly Ash-based products in all construction projects, road
embankment works, and low lying landfilling works that are within a
100 km radius of Thermal Power Stations and mine-filling activities
within a 50 km radius of Thermal Power Stations.
Lead
• Lead is one of the most hazardous heavy metals.
• Lead can cause serious damage to the human body like:
• Nervous system damage
• Digestive issues
• Kidney damage
• Impacts on intelligence
• Hence, Lead was banned as an additive to fuels and other products.
• Lead mixed with water and food can create cumulative poisoning.
• It has long term effects on children as it lowers intelligence.
CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
• Air pollution is caused by solid and liquid particles and certain gases that are
suspended in the air. These particles and gases can come from car and truck
exhaust, factories, dust, pollen, mold spores, volcanoes and wildfires. The solid
and liquid particles suspended in our air are called aerosols.
1. Vehicle Exhaust Fumes.
The number one source of air pollution in city environments is vehicle exhaust
fumes, which happen to release high amounts of carbon monoxide. It’s no surprise
then that carbon monoxide also happens to be the largest air pollutant in the United
States.
• Millions of vehicles are operated on a daily basis in the US alone, each one
leaving its own carbon footprint on the environment. This is why hybrid and fully
electric vehicles are making a splash in the automobile marketplace.
• People are looking to rely less on fossil fuels to power their cars, leading to less
toxic emissions into the environment.
 2.Fossil Fuel-Based Power Plants.

• In addition to vehicle exhaust pollution, fossil fuels also present a

wider scale problem when they’re burned for energy in power plants.
• Chemicals like sulfur dioxide are released during the burning process,
2.
which travel straight into the atmosphere. These types of pollutants
react with water molecules to yield something known as acid rain.
• This is one of the reasons that alternative energy sources, such as
nuclear, solar, and wind are being explored in greater detail. They tend
to release much less pollutants into the environment to produce
equivalent amounts of energy.
3. Exhaust From Industrial Plants And Factories.
• Similar to exhaust being released from vehicles, heavier machinery located
inside big factories and industrial plants also emit pollutants into the air.
• Industrial plants can be found pretty much everywhere in the world, so the
spreading of air pollution is basically global.
4. Construction And Agricultural Activities.
• On a daily basis, dirt and dust is kicked up into the atmosphere from
excavating and demolition type construction activities.
• Switching the focus to agricultural activities, ammonia is a frequent
byproduct that just so happens to be one of the most dangerous gases in
our environment.
• There are also plenty of nasty chemicals that get placed into the
atmosphere from pesticides and fertilizers, which are being used at
increasingly higher rates.
5. Natural Causes.
• When people think pollution, they almost always blame other people. Let’s not
forget that the Earth is one of the biggest polluters itself, though.
• Volcanoes, forest fires, and dust storms are nature-born events that dump massive
amounts of air pollution into the environment.
6. Household Activities.
• Forget about outdoor pollution. What about the pollution that takes place inside
our own homes?
• Common household chemicals, notably bleach, without proper ventilation is a
primary source of indoor air pollution.
• Smoking tobacco through the use of cigarettes and cigars also releases toxic
pollutants into the air.
• It’s often easier to think of outdoor pollution as the primary danger on a wide scale
level, but don’t dismiss the little everyday activities that also impact our health.
VARIOUS POLLUTANTS CAUSING AIR POLLUTION
• The EPA has identified six pollutants as “criteria” air pollutants
because it regulates them by developing human health-based and/or
environmentally-based criteria (science-based guidelines) for setting
permissible levels.
• These six pollutants are carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen oxides,
ground-level ozone, particle pollution (often referred to as particulate
matter), and sulfur oxides.
particle pollution
• The particles that pollute the air by being suspended can be defined as particulate
pollutants.
• These particles are results of some anthropogenic processes like vehicles,
industries, construction sites/activities, etc. or natural sources like pollen, volcanic
eruptions, natural gaseous precursors, etc.
• Their size ranges from 0.001 to 500 micrometers (µm) in diameter.
Carbon monoxide (CO) •Highly toxic. •Carbon monoxide poisoning.
•Produced from internal combustion •Produces carboxyhemoglobin
engines due to incomplete reducing the oxygen-carrying
combustion. capacity of the blood.
•Other sources are volcanoes, forest
fires, etc.
•Greenhouse gas.
Ozone (O3) •Very useful in the Stratosphere
but harmful at the ground layer.
•It’s produced due to industries and
vehicles.
•Greenhouse gas.
Nitrogen oxide (NOx) •Various oxides of Nitrogen come
under NOX.
•Caused due to the reaction
between oxygen and nitrogen at
high temps such as in combustion
engines and industries.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) •Pungent smelling colorless gas
produced from mostly volcanic
activities, industrial processes, and when inhaled.
production of sulphuric acid.
•Has toxic effects.
•Causes watery and itchy eyes.
•Aggravates Ashtamatic conditions
and other respiratory issues in
humans.
•Plays a major role in the
formation of SMOG, acid rain
(nitric acid), and the greenhouse
effect.
•Respiratory issues, premature
deaths, and death of certain nerves
Lead
• Lead is one of the most hazardous heavy metals.
• Lead can cause serious damage to the human body like:
• Nervous system damage
• Digestive issues
• Kidney damage
• Impacts on intelligence
• Hence, Lead was banned as an additive to fuels and other products.
• Lead mixed with water and food can create cumulative poisoning.
• It has long term effects on children as it lowers intelligence.
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS OF
INDIA(NAAQS)
• The NAAQS set by the CPCB are applicable to the whole country. The CPCB
draws this power from the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
• These standards are essential for the development of effective management of
ambient air quality.
• The first ambient air quality standards were developed in 1982 pursuant to the
Air Act.
• Later, in 1994 and 1998, these standards were revised. The latest revision to the
NAAQS was done in 2009 and this is the latest version being followed.
• The 2009 standards further lowered the maximum permissible limits for pollutants
and made the standards uniform across the nation. Previously, industrial zones had
less stringent standards as compared to residential areas.
• The compliance of the NAAQS is monitored under the National Air Quality
Monitoring Programme (NAMP). NAMP is implemented by the CPCB.
The current standards (2009) comprise 12 pollutants as follows:
• Particulate Matter 10 (PM10)
• Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2.5)
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
• Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
• Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Ozone (O3)
• Ammonia (NH3)
• Lead (Pb)
• Benzene
• Benzopyrene
• Arsenic
• Nickel
AIR QUALITY INDEX
• An air quality index (AQI) is used by government agencies to communicate to
the public how polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to
become. AQI information is obtained by averaging readings from an air quality
sensor, which can increase due to vehicle traffic, forest fires, or anything that can
increase air pollution. Pollutants tested include ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur
dioxide, among
• Public health risks increase as the AQI rises, especially affecting children, the
elderly, and individuals with respiratory or cardiovascular issues. During these
times, governmental bodies generally encourage people to reduce physical activity
outdoors, or even avoid going out altogether. The use of face masks such as cloth
masks may also be recommended.
• Different countries have their own air quality indices, corresponding to different
national air quality standards.
• Think of the AQI as a yardstick that runs from 0 to 500. The higher the AQI value,
the greater the level of air pollution and the greater the health concern. For
example, an AQI value of 50 or below represents good air quality, while an AQI
value over 300 represents hazardous air quality.
• For each pollutant an AQI value of 100 generally corresponds to an ambient air
concentration that equals the level of the short-term national ambient air quality
standard for protection of public health. AQI values at or below 100 are generally
thought of as satisfactory. When AQI values are above 100, air quality is
unhealthy: at first for certain sensitive groups of people, then for everyone as AQI
values get higher.

• The AQI is divided into six categories. Each category corresponds to a different
level of health concern. Each category also has a specific color. The color makes it
easy for people to quickly determine whether air quality is reaching unhealthy
levels in their communities.
 AQI Basics for Ozone and Particle Pollution

Daily AQI Levels of Values of

Color Concern Index Description of Air Quality
Green Good 0 to 50 Air quality is satisfactory, and air pollution poses little
or no risk.
Yellow Moderate 51 to 100 Air quality is acceptable. However, there may be a
risk for some people, particularly those who are
unusually sensitive to air pollution.
Orange Unhealthy for 101 to 150 Members of sensitive groups may experience health
Sensitive effects. The general public is less likely to be affected.
Groups
Red Unhealthy 151 to 200 Some members of the general public may experience
health effects; members of sensitive groups may
experience more serious health effects.

Purple Very 201 to 300 Health alert: The risk of health effects is increased for
Unhealthy everyone.
Maroon Hazardous 301 and higher Health warning of emergency conditions: everyone is
more likely to be affected.
Determination of AQI
1.The Sub-indices for individual pollutants at a monitoring location are calculated using its 24-
hourly average concentration value (8-hourly in case of CO and O3) and health breakpoint
concentration range. The worst sub-index is the AQI for that location.
2. All the eight pollutants may not be monitored at all the locations. Overall AQI is calculated only if
data are available for minimum three pollutants out of which one should necessarily be either PM2.5
or PM10. Else, data are considered insufficient for calculating AQI. Similarly, a minimum of 16
hours’ data is considered necessary for calculating subindex.
3. The sub-indices for monitored pollutants are calculated and disseminated, even if data are
inadequate for determining AQI. The Individual pollutant-wise sub-index will provide air quality
status for that pollutant.
4. The web-based system is designed to provide AQI on real time basis. It is an automated system
that captures data from continuous monitoring stations without human intervention, and displays
AQI based on running average values (e.g. AQI at 6am on a day will incorporate data from 6am on
previous day to the current day).
5. For manual monitoring stations, an AQI calculator is developed wherein data can be fed manually
to get AQI value
AQI in India
• The National Air Quality Index (AQI) was launched in New Delhi on September 17, 2014, under
the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.
• The Central Pollution Control Board along with State Pollution Control Boards has been operating
National Air Monitoring Program (NAMP) covering 240 cities of the country having more than
342 monitoring stations. An Expert Group comprising medical professionals, air quality experts,
academia, advocacy groups, and SPCBs was constituted and a technical study was awarded to IIT
Kanpur. IIT Kanpur and the Expert Group recommended an AQI scheme in 2014.While the earlier
measuring index was limited to three indicators, the new index measures eight parameters. The
continuous monitoring systems that provide data on near real-time basis are installed in New
Delhi, Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata and Ahmedabad.
• There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, Moderate, Poor, Severe, and Hazardous.
The proposed AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) for
which short-term (up to 24-hourly averaging period) National Ambient Air Quality Standards are
prescribed. Based on the measured ambient concentrations, corresponding standards and likely
health impact, a sub-index is calculated for each of these pollutants. The worst sub-index reflects
overall AQI. Likely health impacts for different AQI categories and pollutants have also been
suggested, with primary inputs from the medical experts in the group. The AQI values and
corresponding ambient concentrations (health breakpoints) as well as associated likely health
impacts for the identified eight pollutants are as follows:
AQI In India
AQI Associated Health Impacts
Good (0–50) Minimal impact

Satisfactory (51–100) May cause minor breathing discomfort to sensitive people.

Moderate (101–200) May cause breathing discomfort to people with lung disease such as asthma,
and discomfort to people with heart disease, children and older adults.

Poor (201–300) May cause breathing discomfort to people on prolonged exposure, and
discomfort to people with heart disease.

Severe (301–400) May cause respiratory illness to the people on prolonged exposure. Effect may
be more pronounced in people with lung and heart diseases.

May cause respiratory impact even on healthy people, and serious health
Hazardous (401+) impacts on people with lung/heart disease. The health impacts may be
experienced even during light physical activity.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
• air pollution can cause a variety of environmental effects:
1.Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and
sulfuric acids. These acids are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and
sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are
burned. These acids fall to the Earth either as wet precipitation (rain,
snow, or fog) or dry precipitation (gas and particulates). Some are
carried by the wind, sometimes hundreds of miles. In the environment,
acid rain damages trees and causes soils and water bodies to acidify,
making the water unsuitable for some fish and other wildlife. It also
speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of
our national heritage. Acid rain has damaged Massachusetts lakes,
ponds, rivers, and soils, leading to damaged wildlife and forests
• Eutrophication is a condition in a water body where high concentrations of
nutrients (such as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of algae, which in turn can cause
fish kills and loss of plant and animal diversity. Although eutrophication is a
natural process in the aging of lakes and some estuaries, human activities can
greatly accelerate eutrophication by increasing the rate at which nutrients enter
aquatic ecosystems. Air emissions of nitrogen oxides from power plants, cars,
trucks, and other sources contribute to the amount of nitrogen entering aquatic
ecosystems.
• Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air. Haze
obscures the clarity, color, texture, and form of what we see. Some haze-causing
pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly emitted to the atmosphere by sources
such as power plants, industrial facilities, trucks and automobiles, and
construction activities. Others are formed when gases emitted to the air (such as
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) form particles as they are carried downwind.
• Effects on wildlife Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface
waters, can impact wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans, animals can
experience health problems if they are exposed to sufficient concentrations of air
toxics over time. Studies show that air toxics are contributing to birth defects,
reproductive failure, and disease in animals. Persistent toxic air pollutants (those
that break down slowly in the environment) are of particular concern in aquatic
ecosystems. These pollutants accumulate in sediments and may biomagnify in
tissues of animals at the top of the food chain to concentrations many times higher
than in the water or air.
• Ozone depletion Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the
Earth's upper atmosphere, known as the stratosphere. At ground level, ozone is a
pollutant that can harm human health. In the stratosphere, however, ozone forms a
layer that protects life on earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. But
this "good" ozone is gradually being destroyed by man-made chemicals referred
to as ozone-depleting substances, including chlorofluorocarbons,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons
• Crop and forest damage Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a variety of
ways. Ground-level ozone can lead to reductions in agricultural crop and
commercial forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, and
increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests and other environmental stresses
(such as harsh weather). As described above, crop and forest damage can also
result from acid rain and from increased UV radiation caused by ozone depletion.
• Global climate change The Earth's atmosphere contains a delicate balance of
naturally occurring gases that trap some of the sun's heat near the Earth's surface.
This "greenhouse effect" keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unfortunately,
evidence is mounting that humans have disturbed this natural balance by
producing large amounts of some of these greenhouse gases, including carbon
dioxide and methane. As a result, the Earth's atmosphere appears to be trapping
more of the sun's heat, causing the Earth's average temperature to rise - a
phenomenon known as global warming. Many scientists believe that global
warming could have significant impacts on human health, agriculture, water
resources, forests, wildlife, and coastal areas.
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON HUMAN HEALTH
• Even healthy people can experience health impacts from polluted air including
respiratory irritation or breathing difficulties during exercise or outdoor activities. Your
actual risk of adverse effects depends on your current health status, the pollutant type
and concentration, and the length of your exposure to the polluted air.High air pollution
levels can cause immediate health problems including:
• Aggravated cardiovascular and respiratory illness
• Added stress to heart and lungs, which must work harder to supply the body with
oxygen
• Damaged cells in the respiratory system
Long-term exposure to polluted air can have permanent health effects such as:Accelerated
aging of the lungs
• Loss of lung capacity and decreased lung function
• Development of diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and possibly cancer
• Shortened life span.
Those most susceptible to severe health problems from air pollution are:
• Individuals with heart disease, coronary artery disease or congestive heart
failure
• Individuals with lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema or chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• Pregnant women
• Outdoor workers
• Older adults and the elderly
• Children under age 14
• Athletes who exercise vigorously outdoors
People in these groups may experience health impacts at lower air pollution
exposure levels, or their health effects may be of greater intensity.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
• In 2015, WHO and OECD estimated that the economic cost of
premature death and disability from air pollution in Europe
is close to USD 1.6 trillion. Air pollution takes its toll on the
economy in several ways
• it costs human lives
• it reduces people’s ability to work
• it affects vital products like food
• it damages cultural and historical monuments
• it reduces the ability of ecosystems to perform functions
societies need and it costs money in remediation or
restoration.
 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
Ozone Layer Definition
“The ozone layer is a region in the earth’s stratosphere that contains high concentrations
of ozone and protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet radiations of the sun. ”
What is an Ozone Layer?
• The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the earth’s atmosphere.
It has the potential to absorb around 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet radiations
coming from the sun that can damage life on earth. If the ozone layer was absent,
millions of people would develop skin diseases and may have weakened immune systems.
• However, scientists have discovered a hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica.
This has focussed their concern on various environmental issues and steps to control them.
The main reasons for the ozone hole are chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride,
methyl bromide and hydrochlorofluorocarbons.
Ozone Layer Depletion
“Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in the
upper atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical compounds containing
gaseous bromine or chlorine from industries or other human activities.”
 What is Ozone Layer Depletion?

• Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in theupper atmosphere.
This happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere come in contact
with ozone and destroy the ozone molecules. One chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules
of ozone. It is destroyed more quickly than it is created. Some compounds release chlorine
and bromine on exposure to high ultraviolet light, which then contributes to ozone layer
depletion. Such compounds are known as Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS).The ozone-
depleting substances that contain chlorine include chlorofluorocarbon, carbon
tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and methyl chloroform. Whereas, the ozone-
depleting substances that contain bromine are halons, methyl bromide, and hydro
bromofluorocarbons.Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting
substance. It is only when the chlorine atom reacts with some other molecule, it does not
react with ozone.
Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to stop the use, production and import of ozone-
depleting substances and minimise their concentration in the atmosphere to protect the
ozone layer of the earth.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of factors. The main
causes responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer are listed below:
Chlorofluorocarbons
• Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion. These are released by
solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.
• The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down by ultraviolet
radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react with ozone and destroy it.
Unregulated Rocket Launches
• Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets results in much more depletion of the
ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this might result in a huge loss of the ozone layer
by the year 2050.
Nitrogenous Compounds
• The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are highly responsible for the depletion of the
ozone layer.
Natural Causes
• The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural processes such as Sun-spots and
stratospheric winds. But it does not cause more than 1-2% of the ozone layer depletion.
• The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
 Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
“Ozone-depleting substances are the substances such as chlorofluorocarbons, halons, carbon tetrachloride, hydrofluorocarbons, etc. that are responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.”

Ozone-Depleting Substances Sources

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Refrigerators, air-conditioners, solvents, dry-cleaning

agents, etc.

Halons Fire-extinguishers
Ozone-Depleting Sources
Substances
Chlorofluorocarb Refrigerators,
ons (CFCs) air-conditioners,
solvents, dry-
cleaning agents,
etc.
Halons Fire-extinguishers
Carbon Fire
tetrachloride extinguishers,
solvents
Methyl Adhesives,
chloroform aerosols
Hydrofluorocarbo fire

Carbon tetrachloride Fire extinguishers, solvents

ns extinguishers, air-
conditioners,
solvents

Methyl chloroform Adhesives, aerosols

Hydrofluorocarbons fire extinguishers, air-conditioners, solvents

Effects Of Ozone Layer Depletion
• The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the environment. Let us see the
major effects of ozone layer depletion on man and environment.
Effects on Human Health
• Humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun due to the
depletion of the ozone layer. This might result in serious health issues among humans,
such as skin diseases, cancer, sunburns, cataract, quick ageing and weak immune system.
Effects on Animals
• Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.
Effects on the Environment
• Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis in
plants. The forests also have to bear the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays.
Effects on Marine Life
• Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These are
higher in the aquatic food chain. If the planktons are destroyed, the organisms present in
the food chain are also affected.
Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion
• The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various programmes have been launched by
the government of various countries to prevent it. However, steps should be taken at the individual
level as well to prevent the depletion of the ozone layer.
Following are some points that would help in preventing this problem at a global level:
Avoid Using ODS
• Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g. avoid the use of CFCs in refrigerators and air
conditioners, replacing the halon based fire extinguishers, etc.
Minimize the Use of Vehicles
• The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming as well as ozone
depletion. Therefore, the use of vehicles should be minimized as much as possible.
Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products
• Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing chemicals that find a way into the
atmosphere and affect the ozone
Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited
The government should take actions and prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide that is adversely
affecting the ozone layer. People should be made aware of the harmful effects of nitrous oxide and the
products emitting the gas so that its use is minimized at the individual level as well.
PHOTO CHEMICAL CHANGES
• Photochemical smog is a type of air pollution due to the reaction of solar radiation
with airborne pollutant mixtures of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic
compounds (hydrocarbons). Smog is a byproduct of modern industrialization. Due
to industry and the number of motor vehicles, this is more of a problem in large
cities that have a warm, sunny and dry climate.
• Oxidation: Photochemical smog is also referred to as oxidizing smog. Oxidation
reactions have been defined several ways. In terms of oxygen transfer, oxidation is
a gain of oxygen. Oxidation can also be defined as a loss of hydrogen. The most
important use of oxidation is described in terms of electron transfer. Oxidation can
be described as an increase in oxidation number or loss of electrons. Oxidation
numbers represents a distribution of charge. In other words, oxidation numbers
represent the charge of the atom if the compound was composed of ions.
• Reduction: Reduction can involve the gain of hydrogen or loss of oxygen.
Reduction can refer to the gain of electrons, which results in a decrease in
oxidation number.
 Formation of Photochemical Smog

Step 1: People begin driving in the morning, nitrogen is burned or oxidized

N2+O2→2NO

Oxidation number of N2 is 0. The nitrogen in NO has acquired an oxidation number of +2.

•Step 2: After a few hours, NO combines with O2, in another oxidation reaction
2NO+O2→2NO2
The nitrogen in NO has an oxidation number of +2. The nitrogen in NO2 has an oxidation number of +4.

Step 3: Nitrogen dioxide absorbs light energy, resulting in a reduction reaction

NO2→NO+O
The nitrogen in NO2 has an oxidation number of +4 and the nitrogen in NO is +2.

Step 4: In sunlight, atomic oxygen combines with oxygen gas to form ozone
O+O2→O3
Step 5: Reaction is temperature and sunlight dependent
CONTROLE OF AIR POLLUTION
• Air pollution control, the techniques employed to reduce or eliminate the emission into the atmosphere
of substances that can harm the environment or human health.

For general awareness

• Conserve energy - at home, at work, everywhere.
• Look for the ENERGY STAR label when buying home or office equipment.
• Carpool, use public transportation, bike, or walk whenever possible.
• Follow gasoline refueling instructions for efficient vapor recovery, being careful not to spill
fuel and always tightening your gas cap securely.
• Consider purchasing portable gasoline containers labeled “spill-proof,” where available.
• Keep car, boat, and other engines properly tuned.
• Be sure your tires are properly inflated.
• Use environmentally safe paints and cleaning products whenever possible.
• Mulch or compost leaves and yard waste.
• Consider using gas logs instead of wood.
1. Using public transports
Using public transport is a sure short way of contributing to less air pollution as it
provides with less gas and energy, even carpools contribute to it. In addition to less release
of fuels and gas, using a public transport can also help in saving money.
2. Turn off the lights when not in use

The energy that the lights take also contribute to air pollution, thus less
consumption of electricity can save energy. Use energy saving fluorescent
lights to help the environment.
3. Recycle and Reuse

The concept of recycle and reuse is not just conserve resources and use them
judicially but also is helpful for air pollution as it helps in reducing pollution
emissions. The recycled products also take less power to make other products.
4. No to plastic bags
The use of plastic products could be very harmful to the environment as they take a very
long time to decompose, due to their material made up of oil. The use of paper bags
instead is a better alternative as they decompose easily and are recyclable.
5. Reduction of forest fires and smoking
The collecting of garbage and getting it on fire in dry seasons or dry leaves catching fires
is a huge factor for causing air pollution, moreover smoking also causes air pollution and
causes the air quality to worsen along with obviously damaging one’s health.
6. Use of fans instead of Air Conditioner
The usage of AC’s takes a lot of energy and emits a lot of heat which is bad for the
environment. AC’s also take a lot of power and energy to work as compared to fans.
7. Use filters for chimneys
The gas that is emitted from fireplaces in homes and factories are extremely dangerous for
air pollution and harms the air quality severely. The use of filters should be used at least if
the consumption couldn’t be lessened, this will help to reduce the effect of harmful gases
absorbing in the air.
8. Avoid usage of crackers
The use of crackers during festivals and weddings is sadly one of the biggest
contributors to air pollution, leading to a layer of smog which is extremely harmful
for health. So, practice of no crackers should be implemented.
9. Avoid using of products with chemicals
Products that use the chemicals in their usage or smell strongly, like paints or
perfumes should be used less or outside the house. There can also be an alternative
to use products with low chemical content and organic properties.
10. Implement Afforestation
Last but not the least, plant and grow as many trees as possible. The practice of
planting trees provides a lot of benefits to the environment and helps with the
release of oxygen.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION USING DEVICES
• Air pollution control equipment, or emission control systems, remove and
eliminate pollutants classified as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or
hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) that cause environmental and biological damage.
Pollutants such as sulfuric fumes, gases, and atmospheric vapors cause a wide
variety of problems including smog, acid rain, and global warming. Manufacturers
that are concerned for the health of the planet have developed air pollution control
equipment designed to reduce or eliminate the problem.
• Oxidizers
• Thermal oxidizers
• Air filtration systems
• Air scrubbers
• Electrostatic precipitator
• Mist collectors
• Odor control systems
OXIDIZERS

• Oxidizers are chemicals that release oxygen when they react with other
substances. They have a variety of uses and different types produce
different results. Oxidizers break up pollutants and reform them into safe,
non-toxic carbon. There are two types of oxidizers – thermal and catalytic.
• These complex machines are often very large and are therefore more
applicable in industries that yield high emissions such as paper and pulp,
agriculture, printing, food processing, polymer and resin manufacturing,
pharmaceuticals, painting and more. Not all oxidizers are so
cumbersome, however, as they are also implemented in automotive
exhaust systems.The volume and solvent load of process air stream
should be carefully considered when selecting an oxidizer as is the typical
temperature range of a system. All of these factors have a significant
impact on the destruction efficiency of an oxidizer which is generally
between 90% and 99%.
THERMAL OXIDIZERS
• Thermal oxidizers use combustion that produces high temperatures to break down hazardous gases
releasing clean air. The two types of thermal oxidizers are regenerative and recuperative.
Recuperative thermal oxidizers pass hot exhaust through a heat exchanger to heat the gas while
regenerative thermal oxidizers pass hot exhaust through a heat exchanger bed made of ceramic.
Regenerative thermal oxidizers destroy VOC‘s, are the most common air pollution control equipment,
and operate at very high temperatures. Recuperative thermal oxidizers run cooler than the
regenerative version and have primary heat recovery. Catalytic oxidizers use a catalyst to increase the
chemical reaction with VOC and HAP emissions. The catalyst allows the reaction to occur faster and
at a lower temperature. The type of catalyst varies from a precious metal to simple base metals.
AIR FILTRATION SYSTEMS

• Depending on the type of air pollution, facilities may use non-oxidizing air
pollution equipment such as wet scrubbers or dry air scrubbers, mist
collectors, electrostatic precipitators, odor control systems, or air filtration
systems. Several industries are required to have air pollution control
systems to regulate air purity. The heat recovery process of the systems
helps in keeping costs down.
• Air filtration systems are set up to block air pollution, which can be
invisible to the eye. Air pollution in industrial environments is not
uncommon and ranges from dust and pollen particles to microbes, gasses,
and chemicals. Although widespread, air pollutants can trigger serious
allergic reactions in humans and animals as well as promote the spread of
airborne disease and clog electronic or mechanical apparatus causing
reduced productivity or even equipment failure in extreme cases.
AIR SCRUBBERS

• Air scrubbers is a term used to describe a form of air cleaner that removes
pollutants by washing the air that passes through it using either a chemical or
water. It is referred to as a wet scrubber. On the other hand, dry scrubbers attract
and collect pollutants through the application of a dry slurry or reagent forced into
the exhaust stream. Chemicals in the slurry capture large particulates that cannot
pass through a filter. Remaining particulates are caught when the gas stream is
forced through a set of filters. Wet or dry air scrubbers are used by industry to
remove gas emissions.
• While scrubbers can be used to remove particulates and chemicals, many
are geared specifically towards one or the other as optimal operating
conditions differ and chemical solutions and absorption techniques are often
tailored to specific contaminants. Improperly configured or poorly
maintained air scrubbers can leave harmful VOCs and HOCs in the
atmosphere. For this reason, the EPA and other organizations encourage and
even require the use of air scrubbers or other such equipment.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
• Electrostatic precipitator, Hohlfeld‘s idea, is a dry scrubber that uses static
electricity to remove soot and ash from factory smokestacks. They filter smoke,
mist, large liquids, or solid particulate contaminants in a mist collection
process. Electrostatic precipitators are extremely effective and remove 99% of
particulate matter.
To make sure an electrostatic precipitator works as well as it can with the highest
level of efficiency that it can, an operator must make sure that it is assembled and
installed properly and that it sees routine maintenance. For example, when
installing, one must make sure that the ESP‘s potential maintenance areas, like
motors, dampers, discharge devices, fans, insulators, hoppers, T-R sets and
rappers, are readily accessible. Test and inspection areas, such as stack testing
ports and continuous emission monitors, should be likewise accessible. Also,
operators need to keep in mind any natural elements the ESP may encounter; if it
will be exposed to snow or rain, for example, closer monitoring will likely be
required.
MIST COLLECTORS

• Mist collectors, or moisture eliminator filters, remove moisture and vapors from
gas streams. They use a very fine mesh filter to separate liquid from gases and
collect them for processing. They are excellent for submicron particles but cannot
be used for gases that contain large particles that may clog the filter.
• Mist collection systems can be used for abrasives, coolant, smoke, oil, water and
many other materials if properly engineered. Metal finishing and forming
industries as well as chemical processing, brine desalination, marine, food
processing, paper and pulp, agriculture and many other industries take advantage
of mist collectors in daily operations. They are especially popular in applications
where vapor quality is of utmost importance or where space and weight savings
are integral. Installed in line, mist collectors have minimal impact on the gas flow
of an operating system, another point of interest for many users.
ODOR CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Odor control systems mask unpleasant odors with a pleasant scent or absorb them
with powders, sprays, or filters. Absorption of unpleasant odors is a more
permanent solution than covering them with a scent or smell, which is achieved
with a porous material such as activated carbon from charcoal. The type of
odor control system depends on the kind of odor and the system being used. There
are four versions of odor control – chemical absorption, biological oxidation,
chemical scrubbing, and a combination of the three. Each of these methods are
more productive than a pleasant scent.
• In workplaces that have unpleasant odors caused by welding, plastic processing,
high speed machining with coolants, tempering and quenching, mist collectors
remove odors from gas streams. In order to manage smoke and exhaust odors,
thermal oxidizers use chemicals that incinerate pollution in the air. Biofilters are
small and fit inside pipes or tubes and remove sewer gas odors before the contents
come in contact with humans. Atomization, vaporization, encapsulation or infusion
are all popular delivery systems for odor control which may be marketed for
specific odors or designed to breakdown a broad spectrum of odors.
WET SCRUBBERS
• Wet scrubbers reduce or eliminate pollutants by dissolving or absorbing
them in a liquid solution. They can remove both particulates and gaseous
impurities, but these require different absorption techniques or chemical
reactions, so, to achieve optimal operating conditions, wet scrubbers are
usually configured for the cleanup of either one or the other. The correct
configuration ensures removal efficiency rates up to 95%.
• In addition, wet scrubbers can be further categorized by pressure drop. Wet
scrubbers grouped by this measure fall into one of three categories: low-
energy scrubbers, medium-energy scrubbers and high-energy scrubbers.
Low-energy scrubbers have pressure drops of less than five inches of water,
while medium-energy scrubbers have pressure drops between five inches
and fifteen inches of water and high-energy scrubbers have pressure drops
greater than fifteen inches of water.
Rock-forming Minerals
• Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance which is usually solid,
crystalline, stable at room temperature and inorganic.
• There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of rocks are formed from
combinations of a few common minerals, referred to as “rock-forming minerals”. The rock-forming
minerals are: feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.
• Minerals occurring within a rock in small quantities are referred to as “accessory minerals”. Although
accessory minerals are present in only small amounts, they may provide valuable insight into the
geological history of a rock, and are often used to ascertain the age of a rock. Common accessory
minerals are: zircon, monazite, apatite, titanite, tourmaline, pyrite and other opaques.
• The abundance and diversity of minerals depend on the abundance in the Earth’s crust of the
elements of which they are composed. Eight elements make up 98% of the Earth’s crust: oxygen,
silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium. The composition of minerals
formed by igneous processes is directly controlled by the chemistry of the parent body. For example,
a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form minerals such as olivine and pyroxene (as found in
basalt). Magma richer in silicon will form more silica-rich minerals such as feldspar and quartz (as
found in granite). It is unlikely that a mineral will be found in a rock with dissimilar bulk chemistry
unlike its own; thus it is unlikely that andalusite (A l2SiO5) would be found in an aluminium-poor rock
such as a quartzite.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

• Color
• Crystal habit( shape)
• Hardness
• Streak
• Lustre
• Cleavage
QUARTZ
• Quartz is a mineral consisting of carbon and water particles in a
constant frame of SiO4 silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, sharing each carbon
between two tetrahedra, providing SiO2 an general chemical formula.
Quartz is Earth’s second most common mineral, behind feldspar, in the
continental crust.
• There are two forms of quartz, the normal α-quartz and the β-quartz
high-temperature, both chiral. There is an abrupt transformation from
α-quartz to β-quartz at 573 ° C (846 K). Since the transition is
followed by a substantial quantity shift, ceramics or rocks that pass
through this temperature limit can readily be induced to fracture.
Mica

• The mica group of sheet silicate (phyllosilicate) minerals

involves several near-perfect basal cleavage associated
products. They are all monoclinic, with a tendency towards
pseudohexagonal crystals, and in chemical composition are
comparable. The almost ideal cleavage is clarified by the
hexagonal sheet-like structure of its atoms, which is the most
prominent feature of mica.
• The term mica comes from the Latin term mica, which means
a crumb to glitter, and is likely affected by micare.
Amphibole
• Amphibole is an significant cluster of inosilicate minerals
that form prisms or needle-like crystals, consisting of
SiO 4 tetrahedra double chain, connected at the
vertices and usually carrying ions of iron and/or
magnesium in their constructions. Amphiboles may be
green, black, white, yellow, blue, or brown. Amphiboles
are presently classified by the International
Mineralogical Association as a mineral supergroup,
within which there are two categories and several
subgroups.
Feldspars
• Feldspars (KAlSi3O8–NaAlSi3O8–CaAl2Si2O8) are a
collection of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals that
make up by weight about 41% of the mainland surface
of the Earth. In both intrusive and extrusive igneous
rocks, feldspars crystallize from magma as veins and
are also present in many kinds of metamorphic rock. It
is regarded as anorthosite rock made almost completely
of calcium plagioclase feldspar. In many kinds of
sedimentary rocks, feldspars are also discovered.
Lithification
• Lithification refers to complex physical, chemical, or biological processes whereby unconsolidated
material (e.g., sand, silt, and mud) becomes converted to solid rock (e.g., sandstone, siltstone, and
mudstone) Lithification involves primarily the processes of
• Deposition
• Compaction and
• Cementation.
• Recrystallization is also an important process for some sediments.

• Deposition : Sediments are transported only when there is enough energy in the transporting medium,
for example, when a stream is flowing rapidly enough to carry a given size of sedimentary particle.
Steep mountain streams can move large boulders during spring flood but these boulders will never be
transported out into a placid lowland river. So the largest sediments (boulders, cobbles, and pebbles)
which survive the weathering process, tend to be deposited near to their source.
Lithification
Lithification process
• Compaction : The rearrangement of sedimentary particles to reduce pore space and squeeze out
pore water . Unlithified sediments generally contain some excess space between grains. This is
especially true in the case of very fine-grained sediments such as clay and mud. Coarser grained
sediments such as sand and gravels are heavy enough to settle with a minimum of pore space.
Over time, as sediments accumulate in basins, the thickness and weight of the overlying sediments
increases. The pressure on the buried sediments causes all the grains to compress together as
tightly as possible. Excess interstitial water is also forced out and the sediments are now
compacted.
• Cementation: Only after cementation has occurred can the sediments be considered a rock.
Although compaction has reduced the pore space within sediments, some space remains. In
addition, even though the sediments are compacted to a high degree and have been de-watered, the
great pressures and higher temperatures in a sedimentary basin can force hot circulating waters, or
basinal brines, to permeate through the sediments. These fluids have the ability to carry
dissolved minerals and deposit them within the available pore space of sediments, binding them
into rock.
Metamorphism
• Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary or igneous rocks that have been
changed in mineralogy and texture, usually at great depth due to the
effects of any combination of heat, pressure, strain, and aggressive fluid
interaction. They are not “melted” rock; the original minerals are partly or
completely transformed to new minerals by solid-state diffusion, although
this. may be aided by diffusion through a fluid.
• Metamorphic rocks mostly (exception is contact metamorphism) show an
alignment of minerals (due to strain) and the ornaments on maps
sometimes show this. Most metamorphic rocks are folded. However,
folding is not restricted to metamorphic rocks; many sedimentary rocks
fold without any metamorphism, simply by rearranging the positions and
orientations of mineral grains, aided by fluid action. Map ornaments often
indicate metamorphic rocks with folded layers (bent bedding planes).
Advantages metamorphism
1.Increases the density of rocks.
2.Reduces the water content of minerals.
3.Reduces the number of minerals.
4.Introduces minerals with more varied elemental composition .]
Some examples of metamorphic rocks are
• Gneiss
• Slate
• Marble
• Schist
• Quartzite.
Weathering
• Weathering is breaking down rocks, soil, and minerals as well as wood and
artificial materials by contacting the atmosphere, water, and biological
organisms of the Earth. Weathering takes place in situ, i.e. in the same place,
with little or no movement. It should therefore not be confused with erosion
involving the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice,
snow, wind, waves and gravity, and then transported and deposited elsewhere.
• There are two important weathering process classifications–physical and
chemical weathering; each involves a biological component at times.
Mechanical or physical weathering involves rock and soil breakdown by direct
contact with atmospheric conditions such as heat, water, ice and pressure.
• The second classification, chemical weathering, involves the direct effect in the
breakdown of rocks, soils and minerals of atmospheric chemicals or biologically
produced chemicals also known as biological weathering. While physical
weathering is emphasized in very cold or very dry environments, where the
climate is wet and hot, chemical reactions are most intense. Both types of
weathering, however, take place together, and each tends to speed up the
other.
3 TYPES OF WEATHERING
1. PHYSICAL WEATHERING
• Physical weathering, also known as mechanical weathering or
disaggregation, is the process class that causes rocks to disintegrate
without chemical change. Abrasion (the process by which clasts and other
particles are reduced in size) is the primary process in physical weathering.
• Due to temperature, pressure, frost etc., physical weather may occur. For
instance, cracks exploited by physical weathering will increase the surface
area that is exposed to chemical action, thereby increasing the rate of
disintegration.
Where does Physical Weathering occur?
• In places where there is little soil and few plants grow, such as mountain
regions and hot deserts, physical weathering occurs especially.
How does Physical Weathering occur?
• Either by repeated melting and freezing of water (mountains and tundra) or
by expanding and shrinking the surface layer of rocks baked by the sun (hot
deserts).
2.Chemical Weathering
• Chemical weathering changes rock composition, often
transforming them into different chemical reactions when water
interacts with minerals. Chemical weathering is a gradual and
ongoing process as the rock mineralogy adjusts to the
environment near the surface.
• The rock’s original minerals develop new or secondary minerals.
The oxidation and hydrolysis processes are most important in this.
Chemical weathering is enhanced by geological agents such as
water and oxygen, as well as biological agents such as microbial
and plant-root metabolism acids.
where does Chemical Weathering occur?
• These chemical processes require water and occur faster at higher
temperatures, so it is best to have warm, humid climates. The
first stage in soil production is chemical weathering (especially
hydrolysis and oxidation).
3.Biological Weathering
• Biological weathering is the weakening and subsequent breakdown by plants,
animals and microbes of rock.
• Growing roots of plants can put stress or pressure on rock. Even though the
process is physical, a biological process (i.e. growing roots) exerts the pressure.
Biological processes can also produce chemical weathering, such as when organic
acids are produced by plant roots or microorganisms that help dissolve minerals.
• Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals by altering the chemical composition
of the rock, making it more weather sensitive. One example of microbial activity
is lichen ; lichen is a symbiotic relationship between fungi and algae. Fungi
release chemical substances that break down rock minerals ; the algae consume
the minerals thus released from rock. Holes and gaps continue to develop on the
rock as this process continues, exposing the rock to physical and chemical
weathering.
Erosion
• The process known as weathering breaks up rocks so that they
can be carried away by the process known as erosion. Water,
wind, ice, and waves are the agents of erosion that wear away at
the surface of the Earth.
Water Erosion

• Water is the most important erosional agent and erodes most

commonly as running water in streams. However, water in all its
forms is erosional. Raindrops (especially in dry environments) create
splash erosion that moves tiny particles of soil. Water collecting on
the surface of the soil collects as it moves towards tiny rivulets and
streams and creates sheet erosion.
• In streams, water is a very powerful erosional agent. The faster water
moves in streams the larger objects it can pick up and transport. This
is known as critical erosion velocity. Fine sand can be moved by
streams flowing as slowly as three-quarters of a mile per hour.
• The water of streams can erode in three different places: 1) lateral
erosion erodes the sediment on the sides of the stream channel, 2)
down cutting erodes the stream bed deeper, and 3) headward erosion
erodes the channel upslope.
Wind Erosion
• Erosion by wind is known as aeolian (or eolian) erosion (named
after Aeolus, the Greek god of winds) and occurs almost always
in deserts. Aeolian erosion of sand in the desert is partially
responsible for the formation of sand dunes. The power of the
wind erodes rock and sand.
• Ice Erosion
• The erosive power of moving ice is actually a bit greater than the
power of water but since water is much more common, it is
responsible for a greater amount of erosion on the earth's surface.
• Glaciers can perform erosive functions - they pluck and abrade.
Plucking takes place by water entering cracks under the glacier,
freezing, and breaking off pieces of rock that are then transported
by the glacier. Abrasion cuts into the rock under the glacier,
scooping rock up like a bulldozer and smoothing and polishing
the rock surface.
Wave Erosion
• Waves in oceans and other large bodies of water produce coastal
erosion. The power of oceanic waves is awesome, large storm
waves can produce 2000 pounds of pressure per square foot.
The pure energy of waves along with the chemical content of the
water is what erodes the rock of the coastline. Erosion of sand is
much easier for the waves and sometimes, there's an annual
cycle where sand is removed from a beach during one season,
only to be returned by waves in another.