CHAPTER-4: Physical Optics (Overview )

 4.1 Interference
4.1.1 Coherent Sources
4.1.2 Phase & Path difference and Optical path
4.1.3 Intensity in double slit Interference
4.1.4 Young's Double slit Experiment
(Theory of Interference fringes)
4.1.5 Interference in thin films
4.1.6 Interference fringes in a wedge shaped thin
films
4.1.7 Newton's Ring and determination of
wavelength
4.1.8 Haidinger fringes
4.1 Interference
The phenomenon of non-
uniform distribution of
light on the screen, taken
in front of two coherent
sources of light is called
interference of light
which can easily be
explained by wave theory
of light.. Fig-4.1: Interference fringes
It is noticed that bright fringe is formed on the screen
at that point where crest of one light wave coincides
with the crest of another light wave or trough of one
light wave coincides with the trough of another light
wave which is called constructive interference 2
Contd….
Further, dark fringe is formed on the screen at that point
where crest of one light wave coincides with the trough of
another light wave or vice-versa, which is called
destructive interference. The condition of constructive
or destructive interference at a point on the screen is
determined by the path difference or phase difference
between the two light waves, emitted by two coherent
sources, on reaching the observation point.
4.1.1 Coherent Sources
Two light sources are said to be coherent if they emit light
waves of same frequency, nearly same amplitude and
they are in same phase with each other or a constant
phase difference. In practice, two independent light
sources never be coherent but for practical purposes, two
virtual sources formed from a single source can act as
coherent sources. 3
4.1.2 Phase & Path difference, and Optical path
We know that two waves having path difference, is
equivalent to phase difference, . Thus phase difference,
corresponding to path difference, x is related by .
The optical path covered by light (x) corresponding to the
path covered (d) by light in a medium is defined as the
distance covered by light in vacuum in that time interval
during which the light travels in the medium.
Mathematically, refractive index of the medium,

where 'x' is the distance covered by light in vacuum with

velocity, c during the time interval, t and 'd' is the distance
covered by light in the medium with velocity, v during the
same time interval, t.
4
Contd…
Thus, , i.e. the optical path covered by light (x)
corresponding to the path covered (d) by light in a
medium of refractive index () is related by .
4.1.3 Intensity in double slit Interference
Let a monochromatic
source of light (S),
emitting light wave of
wavelength, λ, is placed
in front of two pinholes
A and B, separated by
very small distance, d,
so that they act as two
virtual coherent sources
for interference as
shown in figure-4.2. 5
Contd….
If and be the displacement of the particle at the
observation point P on reaching the waves, emitted by
source A and B respectively, then resultant displacement
is given by

i.e.
where a is the amplitude of the light wave and is the
phase difference between the two light waves on reaching
the point, P.
i.e.

where (4.1)
and (4.2)
6
Contd….

Thus, (4.3)
where R represents amplitude of resultant wave
On squaring equation (4.1) and (4.2) and then adding
them, we get that

(4.4)
Since the intensity (I) at P due to resultant wave is directly
proportional to the square of amplitude (R) of the resultant
wave, we can easily write that
where the proportionality constant is taken as unity
(4.5)
7
Contd….

Special Cases:
I) If , then .It indicates
that I will be maximum, i.e. when the phase
difference between the two light waves on reaching the
point P,i.e. which corresponds path difference,
where n = 0, or 1, or 2, …….
2) If , then . it
indicates that I will be minimum, i.e. when the
phase difference between the two light waves on
reaching the point P, i.e. which
corresponds path difference,
where n = 0, or 1, or 2, …….

8
4.1.4 Young's Double slit Experiment
(Theory of Interference fringe)
We assume two
coherent sources, A and
B, separated by a very
small distance, d in front
of a screen at a
distance, D such that C
is the centre of the
screen.
We suppose P is a point on the screen at a distance
from C where interference fringe (bright or dark) of nth
order is formed.
Contd…
Then by geometry, we have and where M and N are the
foot of perpendiculars drawn from the point A and B on
the screen respectively.

So,
i.e,

But, which represents path difference between the two

light waves, emitting from the source A and B
respectively on reaching the point, P.
Thus, , since (4.6)
Special cases:
1)From the mathematical analysis of interference, we can
easily say that bright fringe of nth order is formed at the
point, P when the path difference, .
Contd…
Thus, bright fringe of nth order is formed at the point, P
when , i.e. . Also, bright fringe of (n+1)th order is formed at
that point, P' of the screen when where is the distance of
the point, P' from C. Hence, distance between two
consecutive bright fringes on the screen is represented by
which is called fringe width.

2) Again, dark fringe of nth order is formed at the point, P

when the path difference, . Thus, dark fringe of nth order
is formed at the point, P when
i.e. .
Contd…
Also, dark fringe of (n+1)th order is formed at that point, P'
of the screen when where is the distance of the point, P'
from C. Hence, distance between two consecutive dark
fringes on the screen is represented by
.
Since , alternative bright and dark fringes of equal breadth
are formed on the screen and hence breadth of bright or
dark fringe is equal to .
4.1.5 Interference in thin films
Everybody is familiar with the beautiful colour produced
by thin films of soap bubble and thin films of oil on the
surface of water. Young was able to explain this
phenomenon on the basis of interference of light due to
multiple reflections from the upper surface or
transmissions from the lower surface of the thin films. So,
the interference in thin film is of following two types:
1) Interference in thin films due to reflected light
Let us assume a thin film of a transparent medium of
refractive index, and constant thickness, t as shown in
figure-4.4. Suppose a light ray PQ is incident on the
upper surface of the film at an angle of incidence, i so
that part of light ray is reflected towards QR and rest
amount of light is refracted by taking the path QS at the
angle of refraction, r.
Contd…..
Let us assume a thin
film of a transparent
medium of refractive
index, and constant
thickness, t as shown
in figure-4.4.
Explanation of figure.
Let QM ⊥ ST and
TO ⊥ QR. Here,
optical path
difference between
the two reflected rays
QR and TU is given
by
Contd…..
Let us assume a thin film of a transparent medium of
refractive index, and constant thickness, t as shown in
figure-4.4. Explanation of figure. Let QM ⊥ ST and TO
⊥ QR. Here, optical path difference between the two
reflected rays QR and TU is represented by

, ¿
So, ,

But, in QMW, , i.e.

Thus, (4.7)
Contd…..
But this path difference does not represent the correct
path difference. Because the light ray changes its
phase by an angle , equal to path difference, as it
reflects from a denser medium ( by electromagnetic
theory). Thus, the actual path difference between the
two light rays QR and TU is represented by
(4.8)

Special cases:
i) If the path difference, i.e. , where n = 0, or 1, or 2, or
3,… then constructive interference or bright fringe is
formed. Thus, by using equation (4.8), for constructive
interference or bright fringe, we have , i.e.
Contd…..
ii) If the path difference, i.e. , where n = 0, or 1, or 2, or
3, ……., then destructive interference or dark fringe is
formed. Thus, by using equation (4.8), for destructive
interference or dark fringe, we have
i.e. .

It is also noticed that the interference pattern will not be

perfect because of unequal intensities of the light waves
QR and TU. Thus the intensity never vanishes completely,
i.e. perfect dark fringe will not be observed.
Contd…..
2) Interference in thin films due to transmitted light
Same explanation
N
as in case-1.
Finally, we get two
transmitted light
rays CD and FG
which superimpose
to each other to
form interference.
Let FH ⊥ CD and
CI⊥EF. Here,
optical path
difference between
the two transmitted
rays CD and FG is
19
Contd…..
.
But
i.e.
So, ,

But, in CIJ, i.e.

Thus, (4.9)
Special cases:
i) If the path difference, i.e. , where n = 0, or 1, or 2, or
3, ……., then constructive interference or bright fringe
is formed. Thus, by using equation (4.9), for
constructive interference or bright fringe, we have
Contd…..
ii) If the path difference, i.e. , where n = 0, or 1, or 2,
or 3, ……., then destructive interference or dark fringe
is formed. Thus, by using equation (4.9), for
destructive interference or dark fringe, we have, .

4.1.6 Interference fringes in a wedge shaped thin films

Let us assume two plane surfaces XY and YZ are
inclined at an angle which encloses a wedge shaped
air-film such that its thickness increases from Y to X as
shown in figure-4.6. When monochromatic light ray is
incident on such air-film, multiple reflections takes place
from the two surfaces of the film which produces a
system of equidistant interference fringes parallel to the
line of intersection of the two surfaces.
 Contd…..

𝑃 𝑛+𝑚 Z
Z 𝑃 𝑛+1
𝑃𝑛

𝜃
𝜃 Y 𝑄𝑛 𝑄
X
Y X 𝑛+1 𝑄𝑛+𝑚
Fig-4.6: Interference in wedge
shaped thin-film Fig-4.7: Interference pattern in
wedge shaped thin-film
Contd…..
Consider the bright fringe of nth order occurs at Pn where
thickness of the air-film is Pn Qn as shown in figure-4.7
so that by applying the condition for bright fringe in thin
film due to reflected light we can write that
where for air and , if I is very small.

I.e. 2 (4.10)

Similarly, the next bright fringe of (n+1)th order occurs

at the point Pn+1 where the thickness
and hence
(4.11)
Contd…..
On subtracting equation (4.10) from equation (4.11), we
have (4.12)
Thus, two consecutive bright fringes will occur at the
two points on the wedge shaped air-film if its thickness
corresponding to the two points increases by .
Hence, where m is the number of bright fringe between
the two points Pn and Pn+m on the wedge shaped air-film.

Again, (4.13)
where which represents distance occupied by m bright
fringes.

Hence, fringe width , by using (4.13). (4.14)

4.1.7 Newton's Ring and determination of
wavelength
Introduction: when a plano-convex lens of large focal length
is placed on a plane glass plate by facing convex surface
towards glass plate, a thin air-film is enclosed between the
lower surface of the lens and upper surface of the glass
plate. The thickness of the air-film is very small at the point of
contact which gradually increases outwards. When a
monochromatic light incident on the system, alternative bright
and dark circular interference fringes are produced due to
superposition of reflected light waves from the wedge shaped
thin air-film. This phenomenon was first of all observed by
Newton and hence they were named as Newton's rings. The
circular fringes are concentric, uniform and their centers
coincide at the point of contact of the lens and glass plate.
 Contd….
Exp. Arrangement
Explanation
Theory: Suppose CME
be the vertical section
of the plano-convex
lens such that the
convex surface has
radius of curvature, R.
Let convex surface of
the plano-convex lens
is kept on the glass
plate, G such that the
point of contact is M..
Contd….
The thickness of the air-film corresponding to edges, C
and E of upper surface of plano-convex lens are
respectively CL and EN, each equal to t.

Here, by geometry,
Contd….
i.e. , since (CD) = (DE)
, since t is very small in comparision to 2Rt
But, , which is the radius of nth fringe, formed at C or E.
So, , i.e. (4.15)

We know that the actual path difference between the

two reflected light rays from the upper and lower
surface of the air-film of thickness, t is represented by
(if i is very small) (4.16)
Further, for bright fringe of nth order, path difference,
(4.17)
where n = 0, or 1, or 2, or 3, ……………
Contd….
Thus, from equations (4.16) and (4.17), the fringe will be
bright of nth order, if
i.e.
i.e. , by using equation (4.15)
i.e. and (4.18)
where dn = 2 rn represents diameter.

Also, n = 0 implies that the radius of 1st bright circular

ring is
Contd….
Again, for dark fringe of nth order, path difference,
(4.19)
Thus, by equations (4.16) and (4.19), the fringe will be
dark of nth order, if
i.e. where n' = 1, or 2, or 3, ………
i.e. , by using equation (4.15)
i.e. and (4.20)
where dn' = 2 rn' represents diameter .

Also, n' = 1 implies that the radius of 1st dark circular

ring is and central fringe is dark.
Contd….
The bright and dark circular ring that we observe in
Newton's ring experiment is shown in following figure:
Determination of wavelength (λ) of
light wave:
From equation (4.20), the diameter of n' th dark circular
ring is represented by . Similarly, the diameter of m th
dark circular ring is represented by where we assume .

Thus, (4.21)
i.e. (4.22)

Also, on drawing the graph between taken in x-axis and

taken y-axis, we get a straight line as represented by
equation (4.21) and slope of the st. line represents which
indicates that (4.23)
4.1.8 Haidinger fringes
As discussed in interference in thin film, interference
fringes are formed due to superposition of two light
waves having the phase difference (x) equal to which
indicates that the path difference depends upon
thickness (t) of the film and angle of refraction (r) for the
given film. If the thickness of the film is large, even a
small change in angle of refraction will cause large
change in path difference. In such case, the reflected
light rays coming from the film appear as parallel beam
and hence interference fringes are produced due to the
superposition of such light rays which are equally
inclined to the normal. These circular interference
fringes are the fringes of equal inclination, which were
first of all observed by Austrian physicist Wilhelm Karl
Haidinger (1795-1871) and they are known as Haidinger
fringes.
Contd……
Contd…..
However, Haidinger fringes are different from Newton's
ring in reference of following facts.
For Haidinger fringes, the thin film has a constant
thickness (comparatively large) and the path difference
is associated with a variable inclination of rays. With an
extended source, localization is at infinity.
For Newton fringes, the thickness is variable but the
inclination is constant. The path difference is associated
with a variable thickness. With an extended source,
localization is near the lens.