In 2014, the top carbon dioxide (CO2)

emitters were China, the United States,

the European Union, India, the Russian
Federation, and Japan. These data
include CO2 emissions from fossil fuel
combustion, as well as cement
manufacturing and gas flaring. Together,
these sources represent a large
proportion of total global CO2 emissions.

Source: Boden, T.A., Marland, G., and Andres, R.J. (2017). National CO2 Emissions
from Fossil-Fuel Burning, Cement Manufacture, and Gas Flaring: 1751-2014, Carbon
Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department
of Energy, doi 10.3334/CDIAC/00001_V2017.
 Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is of interest from the

point of view of climate because it
regulates the concentrations of two of
the atmosphere’s two most important
greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2)
and methane (CH4).

Processes responsible for the cycling of carbon between the various

reservoirs in the Earth system. Ref: Wallace and Hobbs
Global Carbon Cycle
Atmosphere (750 GT)

R (50) P (110) C F MTA (90) MTO (90)

Land Biota (610 GT) Surface Ocean (970 GT)

(59.1)
D (95.9)

MR
L (60) MP (10)

(0.6)
RO

(105.6)
Ocean Biota (3 GT)

FF
(6)
Top Soil (1680 GT)

U
ML (10)
B (0.3)
B (0.3)
Deep Ocean (38000 GT)
(0.6)
VE

B (0.6)
S (0.6) Sedimentary Rocks (1,000,000 GT)
Mantle
Fossil Fuels (300 GT)

VE: Volcanic Eruption RO: Runoff ML: Marine Litter

R: Respiration MTO: Mass Trans. Ocean B: Burial
P: Photosynthesis U: Up-welling FF: Fossil Fuel Burning
C: Combustion D: Down-welling S: Subduction
MR: Microbial Respiration MP: Marine Ph. Syn. MTA: Mass Trans. Atm
F: Farming L: Litter Flows in GT/yr
Ref: PB’s Lec
Major carbon reservoirs in the Earth system and their present capacities in units of
kg m2 averaged over the Earth’s surface and their residence times

Ref: Wallace and Hobbs

Carbon Cycle
Many of these interactions result from the movement of carbon (C) through the climate
system and in turn affect the distribution of heat on Earth
• Carbon moves among and resides in
several major reservoirs. The amount of
carbon in each reservoir is typically
quantified in gigatons (billions of tons,
or 1015 grams) of carbon.

• Relatively small amounts of carbon

reside in the atmosphere, the surface
ocean, and vegetation

• a slightly larger reservoir resides in

soils, a much larger reservoir in the
deep ocean, and a huge reservoir in
rocks and sediments
Ref: Wallace and Hobbs
Carbon takes different chemical forms in these
different reservoirs.

In the atmosphere:CO2
In land/vegetation: Organic
In the ocean: Mostly inorganic, occurring as
dissolved ions (atoms carrying positive or negative
charges)

Photosynthesis on land

Despite these differences in form, carbon is exchanged freely among all the
reservoirs, changing back and forth between organic and inorganic forms as
it moves.
Ref: Wallace and Hobbs
Carbon in the Atmosphere
• Most of the carbon in the atmospheric reservoir is in the form of CO2.

• Because of its chemical inertness, CO2 is relatively well mixed within the
atmosphere: away from forest canopies and other sites in close contact with
vegetation, CO2 concentrations vary by only ~ 1% over the surface of the Earth

• Methane (CH4) is present only in trace concentrations in the Earth’s atmosphere,

but it contributes to the greenhouse effect and is chemically active.

• Methane has a ~ 9-year residence time in the atmosphere: it is removed by the

oxidation reaction

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

Ref: Wallace and Hobbs

Carbon in the Biosphere
On short timescales, large quantities of carbon pass back and
forth between the atmosphere and the biosphere. These
exchanges involve the photosynthesis reaction. which removes
carbon from the atmosphere and stores it in organic molecules in
phytoplankton and leafy plants, and the respiration and decay
reaction which oxidizes organic matter and returns the CO2 to the
atmosphere.

Photosynthesis involves the absorption of energy in the form of

visible light at wavelengths near 0.43 (blue) and 0.66 m (orange),
and the respiration and decay reaction releases an equivalent
amount of energy in the form of heat.
By comparing the intensity of reflected radiation at various
wavelengths in the visible part of the spectrum, it is possible to
estimate the rate of photosynthesis in (2.5) by phytoplankton and
land plants, which is referred to as net primary productivity
(NPP).
Rate of carbon uptake by photosynthesis,
commonly referred to as net primary
productivity, averaged over June 2002, in
units of kg m-2 year-1. Values are low over
high latitudes of the southern hemisphere
because of the lack of sunlight.
Ref: Wallace and Hobbs
 Carbon in the Biosphere
• The rate of exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and the biosphere is
estimated to be 0.1–0.2 kg C m-2 year-1. Hence, the time that a typical molecule of
CO2 resides in the atmosphere is 1.6 kg C m-2 divided by 0.15 kg C m-2 year-1, or 10
years.

• In anoxic (i.e., oxygen deficient) environments, the carbon in decaying organic

matter is returned to the atmosphere in the form of methane.

• The marine biosphere absorbs dissolved CO2 within the euphotic zone and releases it
throughout the deeper layer of the ocean in which plants, animals, and detritus decay
as they sink toward the ocean floor.

• Within anoxic regions of the oceans, the organic debris that settles out of the euphotic
zone reaches the ocean floor and forms layers of sediment, some of which are
eventually incorporated into the organic carbon reservoir in the Earth’s crust.
Ref: Wallace and Hobbs
Carbon in the Biosphere
Shells and skeletons of sea animals that settle to the ocean floor are converted into
limestone (CaCO3) rocks. This inorganic carbon reservoir of the Earth’s crust is the
largest of the carbon reservoirs in the Earth system.

Carbon in the Oceans

The carbon in the oceanic reservoir exists in three forms:
(1) dissolved CO2 or H2CO3, also known as carbonic acid,
(2) Carbonate (CO32-) ions paired with Ca2+ and Mg2+ and other metallic cations,
and
(3) bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).

The third form is by far the largest of the oceanic carbon reservoirs

Ref: Wallace and Hobbs