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EFFECT OF BORE WATER ON CEMENT-PLASTER FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL

ACTIVITIES IN BOLLARAM, INDIA INDUSTRIAL AREA

Conference Paper · April 2013

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.1359.3925

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 EFFECT OF BORE WATER ON CEMENT-PLASTER
FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES IN
BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,
HYDERABAD
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE
OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY
G.SAI SANDEEP K.NIKHIL TEJA M.TEJAVARUN
(09071A0115) (09071A0125) (09071A0133)
M.SRINIVAS P.TEJASWANI P.V.KALYAN VARMA
(09071A0137) (09071A0141) (09071A0154)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Smt. J.SOUJANYA M.E
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

VNR VIGNANA JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,
APPROVED BY AICTE, NEW DELHI & AFFILIATED TO JNTU, HYD
BACHUPALLY, (VIA) KUKATPALLY, HYDERABAD-500 090

APRIL 2013

1
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “EFFECT OF BORE WATER ON

CEMENT-PLASTER FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES IN

BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA” is the bonafide work of G.SAI

SANDEEP (09071A0115), K.NIKHIL TEJA (09071A0125), M.TEJA

VARUN (09071A0133), M.SRINIVAS (09071A0137), P.TEJASWANI

(09071A0141), P.VENKAT KALYAN VARMA (09071A0154), in partial

fulfilment of the degree of Bachelor Of Technology in Civil Engineering from

VNR VJIET, an autonomous to JNTU-HYDERABAD, is a record of

bonafide work carried out by them under my guidance and supervision. The

results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any other

university or institution for the award of any degree or diploma.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.B.N.MALLESWARA RAO Smt. J. SOUJANYA

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT PROJECT GUIDE

Professor Assistant Professor

Dept. of Civil Engineering Dept. of Civil Engineering

VNR VJIET VNR VJIET

Hyderabad – 500 090 Hyderabad – 500 090

2
 DECLARATION

We, the undersigned declare that the project report entitled “ EFFECT OF

BORE WATER ON CEMENT-PLASTER FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL

ACTIVITIES IN BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA ” written and

submitted by me is an original work done under the guidance of Smt. J.

SOUJANYA. The matter here in is not reproduced from any other source.

G.SAI SANDEEP K.NIKHIL TEJA M.TEJAVARUN

(09071A0115) (09071A0125) (09071A0133)

M.SRINIVAS P.TEJASWANI P.V. KALYAN VARMA

(09071A0137) (09071A0141) (09071A0154)

PLACE: HYDERABAD
DATE :

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With immense sincerity, we would like to thank everyone who helped us in the
successful completion of this project.

We wish to express our humble thanks to our project guide Smt.J.SOUJANYA

for sparing her valuable time for clarifying doubts and encouraging us.

Also, we would like to express our immense thanks to VNR VJIET CIVIL
ENGINEERING LABORATORIES and JNTU-H CIVIL ENGINEERING
LABORATORIES for helping us in experimentation.

We are also grateful to Dr.B.NAGAMALLESWARA RAO, Professor and

Head of Department, for his encouragement and guidance regarding the project
work.

We would also like to thank Civil Engineering faculty and supporting staff for
providing us a helping hand.

G.SAI SANDEEP K.NIKHIL TEJA M.TEJAVARUN

(09071A0115) (09071A0125) (09071A0133)

M.SRINIVAS P.TEJASWANI P.V. KALYAN VARMA

(09071A0137) (09071A0141) (09071A0154)

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT i

LIST OF TABLES ii

LIST OF FIGURES iii

LIST OF GRAPHS iv

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL 1

1.2 WATER UTILIZATION FOR INDUSTRIES IN INDIA 1

1.3 INDUSTRIAL WATER POLLUTION AND THEIR

IMPACTS 2

1.4 CONSTRUCTION WATER QUALITY 3

1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENT WORK 3

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 4

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 SAMPLE LOCATION DETAILS 5

3.2 DETAILS OF STUDY AREA 5

3.3 SAMPLING 6

3.4 SAMPLING SOURCES 6

3.4.1 SURFACE WATER SAMPLING 6

3.4.2 SUB-SURFACE WATER SAMPLING 6

5
 3.5 TYPES OF SAMPLING 7

3.6 SAMPLE COLLECTION 7

3.6.1 COLLECTION OF BORE WATER SAMPLES 7

3.6.2 LABELLING OF SAMPLE CONTAINER 8

3.6.3 WATER SAMPLE FIELD SHEET 8

3.6.4 PRESERVATION OF WATER SAMPLE 8

3.7 PREPARATION OF CONTAMINATED CURING

MEDIUM 9
3.8 PREPARATION OF CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES 9

3.9 CURING OF CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES IN

CONTAMINATED CURING MEDIUM 9
3.10 TOLERABLE CONCENTRATIONS ON SOME
PARAMETERS IN MIXING AND CURING WATER 10

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

4.1 TESTS ON WATER 11

4.1.1 PH 11

4.1.2 WATER TEMPERATURE 13

4.1.3 CONDUCTIVITY 13

4.1.4 ALKALITIY 14

4.1.5 ACIDITY 14

4.1.6 HARDNESS 16

4.1.7 CHLORIDES 17

4.1.8 SULPHATES 19

4.1.9 TOTAL SUSPENDED & DISSLOVED SOLIDS 20

6
 4.1.10 TOTAL SOLIDS 21

4.2 TESTS ON CEMENT 22

4.2.1 FINENESS TEST 22

4.2.2 SOUNDNESS TEST 23

4.2.3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CEMENT 24

4.2.4 STANDARD CONSISTENCY TEST 25

4.2.5 INITIAL SETTING TIME TEST 27

4.2.6 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CEMENT 28

5. OBSERVATIONS AND GRAPHS 31

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 48

7. CONCLUSIONS 50

8. REMEDIAL MEASURES 51

9. REFERENCES 52

7
 ABSTRACT

The deterioration of wall plaster due to the action of pollutants or contaminants that are
contained in the ground water when the industrial waste water in an industrial area percolates
into the ground from the surface has the following affects-
1. Pollutes the ground water.
2. Deteriorates the cement-mortar plastering of the buildings.
The intend is the evaluation of the strength of the wall plaster when the contaminated bore
water is used for curing. Ground water samples are collected and tests are conducted to
analyze the quality characteristics and these characteristics are compared with the permissible
values. The deviation between the quality characteristics of samples and their permissible
values for the constructional activities are observed. Strength tests on cement-mortar cubes
are done with the fresh water and the sampled water. The variation in the strength of the
blocks is observed and the remedial measures are suggested.

8
 LIST OF TABLES

S.No. TITLE PAGE No.

1. PH VALUES 31
2. TEMPERATURE VALUES 32
3. CONDUCTIVITY VALUES 33
4. ALKALINITY VALUES 34
5. ACIDITY VALUES 35
6. TOTAL HARDNESS VALUES 36
7. CHLORIDES VALUES 37
8. SULPHATES VALUES 38
9. TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS 39
10. TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS VALUES 40
11. TOTAL SOLIDS VALUES 41
12. RESULT PROFORMA FOR TESTS ON CEMENT 47
13. RESULT PROFORMA FOR TESTS ON WATER 47
14. 7 – DAY COMPRESSIVE TEST VALUES ON
CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES 48
15. 28 – DAY COMPRESSIVE TEST VALUES ON
CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES 48

9
 LIST OF FIGURES

S.No. TITLE PAGE No.

1. BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA 5
2. COLLECTION OF BORE WATER SAMPLE 7
3. WATER SAMPLES IN 1-LITRE NON-REACTIVE PLASTIC
CONTAINERS 7
4. CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES IN EACH CONTAMINATED 10
CURING TANK
5. pH METER 12
6. pH SCAL 12
7. CONDUCTIVITY METER 13
8. TEST FOR CHLORIDES 18
9. UV SPECTROPHOTOMETER 19
10. DESICCATOR, EVAPORATING DISHES, WHATMAN
FILTER PAPER AND WEIGHING BALANCE 21
11. LECHATLIER’S APPARATUS 24
12. VICAT APPARATUS WITH A PLUNGER FOR DETERMINING
STANDARD CONSISTENCY OF CEMENT 26
13. VICAT APPARATUS WITH INITIAL SET NEEDLE FOR
DETERMINING INITIAL SETTING TIME OF CEMENT 28
14. DE-MOULDING OF CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES 29
15. TESTING OF CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES UNDER
COMPRESSION TESTING MACHINE 30
16. FORMATION OF EFFLORESENCE ON THE CUBES CURED IN
DISTILLED, ACIDIC, HARD AND CHLORIDE WATER 47

10
 LIST OF GRAPHS

S.No. TITLE PAGE No.

1. PH 42
2. CONDUCTIVITY 42
3. ALKALINITY 43
4. ACIDITY 43
5. TOTAL HARDNESS 44
6. CHLORIDES 44
7. SULPHATES 45
8. TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS 45
9. TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS 46
10. TOTAL SOLIDS 46

11
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
The rapid pace of industrialization that has recently become the need of the hour for a
developing country like India has turned into a major source of groundwater contamination.
Huge inputs of pollutants have been taking the pollutants’ levels beyond the absorptive
capacity of the environment. The industries that induce the pollutants into the groundwater
resources from their activities do not strictly regulate their pollutants to safe limits. Most of
the industries discharge their effluents without proper treatment into nearby open pits or pass
them through unlined channels, which move towards the low lying depressions on land,
resulting in the contamination of groundwater. The industrial effluents if not treated and
properly controlled, can pollute and cause serious damage to the groundwater resources.

Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actively participates in the chemical

reaction with cement. Since it helps to form the strength giving cement gel, the quantity and
quality of water is required to be looked into very carefully. In practice, very often great
control on properties of cement and aggregate is exercised, but the control on the quality of
water is often neglected. Since quality of water affects the strength, it is necessary for us to
go into the purity and quality of water.

1.2 WATER UTILIZATION FOR INDUSTRIES IN INDIA

With the growing inter- and intra-sectoral competition for water and declining fresh water
resources, the utilisation of “marginal quality water” for agriculture has posed a new
challenge for environmental management. In water scarce areas there are competing demands
from different sectors on the limited available water resources. Though industrial use of water
is very low as compared to agricultural use, the disposal of industrial effluents on land and/or
on surface water bodies make water (ground and surface) resources unsuitable for other uses.
Industry is a small user of water in terms of quantity, but has a significant impact on quality.
Over three-fourth of fresh water draw by the domestic and industrial sector, return as
domestic sewage and industrial effluents which inevitably end up in surface water bodies or
in the groundwater, affecting water quality.

12
1.3 INDUSTRIAL WATER POLLUTION AND THEIR IMPACTS

Industry is a huge source of water pollution, it produces pollutants that are extremely harmful
to people and the environment. Many industrial facilities use freshwater to carry away waste
from the plant and into rivers, lakes and oceans.

Pollutants from industrial sources include:

1. Asbestos – This pollutant is a serious health hazard and carcinogenic. Asbestos fibres
can be inhaled and cause illnesses such as asbestosis, mesothelioma, lung
cancer, intestinal cancer and liver cancer.
2. Lead – This is a metallic element and can cause health and environmental problems. It
is a non-biodegradable substance so is hard to clean up once the environment is
contaminated. Lead is harmful to the health of many animals, including humans, as it
can inhibit the action of bodily enzymes.
3. Mercury – This is a metallic element and can cause health and environmental
problems. It is a non-biodegradable substance so is hard to clean up once the
environment is contaminated. Mercury is also harmful to animal health as it can
cause illness through mercury poisoning.
4. Nitrates – The increased use of fertilisers means that nitrates are more often
being washed from the soil and into rivers and lakes. This can cause eutrophication,
which can be very problematic to marine environments.
5. Phosphates – The increased use of fertilisers means that phosphates are more often
being washed from the soil and into rivers and lakes. This can cause
eutrophication, which can be very problematic to marine environments.
6. Sulphur – This is a non-metallic substance that is harmful for marine life.
7. Oils – Oil does not dissolve in water, instead it forms a thick layer on the
water surface. This can stop marine plants receiving enough light for photosynthesis.
It is also harmful for fish and marine birds.
8. Petrochemicals – This is formed from gas or petrol and can be toxic to marine life.

13
1.4 CONSTRUCTION WATER QUALITY

A popular yard-stick to the suitability of water for mixing concrete is that, if water is fit for
drinking it is fit for making concrete. This does not appear to be a true statement for all
conditions. Some waters containing a small amount of sugar would be suitable for drinking
but not for mixing concrete may not necessarily be fit for drinking. Some specifications
require that if the water is not obtained from source that has proved satisfactory, the strength
of concrete or mortar made with questionable water should be compared with similar
concrete or mortar made with pure water.

The best course to find out whether a particular source of water is suitable for concrete
making or not, is to make concrete with this water and compare its 7days and 28days with
companion cubes made with distilled water. This criterion may be safely adopted in places
where the available water is brackish in nature and of doubtful quality. However, it is logical
to know what harm the impurities in water do to the concrete and what degree of impurity is
permissible is mixing concrete and curing concrete. Hence, the water shall be tested in an
approved laboratory for its use in preparing concrete or mortar. The water quality for
construction shall be tested or monitored regularly, as it affects the overall strength of
concrete.

1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENT WORK

 To find the change in strength of cement-mortar (wall plaster) when the bore water is
used as a curing medium for constructional purpose in industrial area.
 This can be found out by testing the water samples collected from 25 different
locations in Bollaram Industrial Area and finding out the parameters which exceeded
the permissible limits.
 The curing medium for each predominant contaminant is prepared by adding the
contaminants to the distilled water and the cubes are cured in that contaminated water
and are tested for their strength at 7 days and 28 days.
 The variation in the strength of the blocks is observed and, the reasons and remedial
measures for variation of strength are suggested.

14
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

1. “WATER PERMEABILITY AND CHLORIDE ION DIFFUSION IN PORTLAND

CEMENT MORTARS: RELATIONSHIP TO SAND CONTENT AND CRITICAL
PORE DIAMETER”: CEMENT AND CONCRETE RESEARCH. Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 790-
802,1995 by Pavla Halamickova and Rachel J. Detwiler, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Toronto.

ABSTRACT: The pore structure of hydrated cement in mortar and concrete is quite different
from that of neat cement paste. The porous transition zones formed at the aggregate-paste
interfaces affect the pore size distribution. The effect of the sand content on the development
of pore structure, the permeability to water, and the diffusivity of chloride ions was studied
on Portland cement mortars.

2. “INFLUENCE OF STRONG ALKALINE SUBSTANCES (Na2CO3.& Na HCO3.) IN

MIXING WATER ON STRENGTH AND SETTING PROPERTIES OF
CONCRETE”: INDIAN JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING & MATERIAL SCIENCES
Vol.13, April 2006, pp.123-128 by N.Venkateswara reddy, H.Sudarshan Rao and
K.N.Jayaveera, Dept of Civil Engineering, JNTU-Ananthapur.

Abstract: Na2CO3 in de-ionised water accelerates initial and final setting times whereas Na
HCO3 in de-ionised water decreases the compressive and tensile strengths at 28 and 90 days
significantly.

15
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 SAMPLE LOCATION DETAILS:

LOCATION OF INDUSTRIAL AREA: BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA also known

as IDA (INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AREA) BOLLARAM.

Fig.1 BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

3.2 DETAILS OF STUDY AREA:

IDA (Industrial Development Area) Bollaram, also known as Bollaram Industrial Area,
having coordinates 17°33’17” North latitude and 78°21’1” East longitude is a village
in Jinnaram mandal, in Medak district, of Andhra Pradesh and a suburb of Hyderabad. It is
surrounded by Bachupally, Miyapur and Ameenpur. The study area, Bollaram Industrial area,
is covered in part of the Survey of India, Toposheet No.56 K/6/SW. More than 1000
industries are dominated by chemical, leather, pharmaceutical, plating and allied industries.

16
3.3 SAMPLING

The sample collected should be small in volume, enough to accurately represent the whole
water body. The water sample tends to modify itself to the new environment. It is necessary
to ensure that no significant changes occur in the sample and preserve its integrity till
analysed (by retaining the same concentration of all the components as in the water body).
The essential objectives of water quality assessment are to:

a) Define the status and trends in water quality of a given water body.
b) Analyse the causes for the observed conditions and trends.
c) Identify the area specific problems of water quality and provide assessments in the
form of management to evaluate alternatives that help in decision-making.

3.4 SAMPLING SOURCES

There are 2 types of sampling sources:

3.4.1 SURFACE WATER SAMPLING: This standard operating procedure (SOP) is

applicable to the collection of representative liquid samples, both aqueous and non-aqueous
sources like Rivers, Lakes, Streams, Ponds and Surface impoundments. These are
standard (i.e., typically applicable) operating procedures which may be varied or changed as
required, dependent upon site conditions, equipment limitations or limitations imposed by the
procedure or other procedure limitations.

3.4.2 SUB-SURFACE WATER SAMPLING: This method is applicable to the collection of

representative samples beneath the ground. It includes the samples collected from Open
wells and Bore wells.

3.5 TYPES OF SAMPLING

Generally three types of sampling are adopted for collecting water samples:

a) GRAB or CATCH SAMPLING: the sample is collected at a particular time and

place that represents the composition of the source at that particular point and time.
b) COMPOSITE SAMPLING: a mixture of grab samples is collected at the same
sampling point at different time intervals.
c) INTEGRATED SAMPLING: a mixture of grab samples collected at different points
simultaneously.
17
3.6 SAMPLE COLLECTION

3.6.1 COLLECTION OF BORE WATER SAMPLE:

1. The samples are collected after sufficient pumping to insure that the sample represents
the ground water source.

2. After flushing for 3 to 5 minutes, the container is rinsed with the water that is to be
collected for examination.

3. The bore-water is collected in 1 litre containers-25 Nos. in 25 different locations.

4. The water should be filled in each container leaving 1 inch of air space.

Fig.2 COLLECTION OF BORE WATER SAMPLE

Fig.3 WATER SAMPLES IN 1-LITRE NON-REACTIVE PLASTIC CONTAINERS

18
3.6.2 LABELING OF SAMPLE CONTAINER:

Prior to sampling, label sample containers with the following information:

1. Sample identification (full description of sample source can be written on sample field
sheet to accompany samples)
2. Date of sampling
3. Time of sampling

NOTE: The sampling container should not react with the sample, be of adequate capacity to
store the sample and be free from contamination.

3.6.3 WATER SAMPLE FIELD SHEET

This sheet must be filled out using indelible ink at the same time as samples are being taken.
It should contain the following information:

a. Name of Company/Organization
b. Type of water samples (e.g. potable, raw, well water; repeat sample, etc.)
c. Date of sampling
d. Sample identification(a nearby landmark)
e. Description of sample source/location.
f. Analysis required
g. Time of sampling
h. Sampler identification/signature

3.6.4 PRESERVATION OF WATER SAMPLE

1. Between the time a sample is collected and analysed in the laboratory, physical,
chemical and biochemical reactions may take place in the sample container leading to
changes in the intrinsic quality of the sample.

2. The shorter time elapsed between collection and analysis of the sample gives more
reliable results.

3. The preservation procedure includes keeping the samples in the dark, adding chemical
preservative, lowering the temperature to retard reactions, or combinations of these.

4. The preservative used for storing these water samples is 1:1 HNO3.

19
PRESERVATION TEMPERATURE AND MAXIMUM HOLDING TIME FOR
TESTING OF INDIVIDUAL PARAMETER:

EXPERIMENT PRESERVATIVE Max. holding time

TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS Cool, 1-4o C, do not freeze 7 days

VOLATILE SUSPENDED
Cool, 1-4o C, do not freeze 7 days
SOLIDS

CHLORIDE Cool, 1-4o C, or freeze 1 month

HARDNESS 7days
ACIDITY Cool, 1-4o C, do not freeze 1 day
ALKALINITY Cool, 1-4o C, do not freeze 1 day
SULPHATES Cool, 1-4o C, or freeze 7 days

3.7 PREPARATION OF CONTAMINATED CURING MEDIUM

As per the analysis done on the water the major pollutants with high concentrations that
exceed the permissible limit are identified. The curing medium for each predominant
contaminant is prepared by adding the contaminants to the distilled water.

3.8 PREPARATION OF CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES

The cement-mortar cubes are prepared using cement and ennore sand and distilled water. The
ennore sand is composed from 3 fractions, all of them with rounded quartz grains.

The 3 fractions are: Fine sand 0.08 – 0.5 mm

Medium sand 0.5 – 1.0 mm
Coarse sand 1.0 – 2.0mm

The mixture should contain equal amounts of cement, fine sand, medium sand and coarse
sand. Each cube is prepared individually. Make sure that the cement-mortar mixture is mixed
and placed within 30 minutes after adding water to the cement.

3.9 CURING OF CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES IN CONTAMINATED CURING

MEDIUM
1. 6 cement-mortar cubes for each parameter are immersed in the curing tank containing
that major contaminant.

20
 2. 3 cubes for 7 day period and the other 3 cubes for 28 days period are subjected to
testing.
3. Hence a total of 24 cubes are prepared.

Fig.4 6 CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES IN EACH CONTAMINATED CURING TANK

3.10 TOLERABLE CONCENTRATIONS ON SOME PARAMETERS IN MIXING

WATER:
TOLERABLE
PARAMETER
CONCENTRATION(ppm)
pH 6-8
ALKALINITY 250
ACIDITY 50
HARDNESS 1000
CHLORIDES 1000
SULPHATES 400
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS 3200
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS 2000

21
 CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

4.1 TESTS ON WATER COLLECTED FROM INDUSTRIAL ZONE:

1. pH

2. Water Temperature

3. Electrical Conductivity

4. Total Hardness

5. Alkalinity

6. Acidity

7. Chlorides

8. Sulphates

9. Total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids and total solids

4.1.1 pH

AIM: pH is measured by pH meter using a glass electrode which generates a potential

varying linearly with the pH of the solution in which it is measured. It is Nernst in
concentration cell with a potential controlled by the activities of H+ ions either side of very
tin glass membrane.

PROCEDURE:

1. Calibrate the electrode with 2 standard buffer solutions of 4.0 and 9.2(a buffer
solution as a solution offering resistant to change in pH and whose pH value is
known).
2. The sample temperature is determined at the sample time and is entered into the meter
to allow for a temperature correction.
3. Rinse the electrode thoroughly with de ionized distilled water and carefully wipe with
a tissue paper.
4. Dip the electrodes into the sample solution, swirl the solution and wait upto a minute
for steady reading.

22
5. A pH meter reading within ± 0.1 pH unit will be adequate for such work.
6. The reading is taken after the indicator value remains constant.

Fig.5 pH METER

Fig.6 pH SCALE

23
4.1.2 WATER TEMPERATURE
Temperature can be measured using a thermometer with a range of 0–50°C or a suitable
electronic thermometer. The probe (or thermometer) is placed in the water to be measured.
The temperature is measured after the reading has stabilised. This may take several minutes.
Since the solubility of dissolved oxygen decreases with increasing water temperature, high
water temperatures limit the availability of dissolved oxygen for aquatic life. In addition,
water temperature regulates various biochemical reaction rates that influence water quality.
Heat sources and sinks to a water body include incident solar radiation, back radiation,
evaporative cooling and heat conduction, thermal dischargers (e.g. cooling water from power
plants), tributary inflows and groundwater discharge.

4.1.3 CONDUCTIVITY
AIM: The electrical conductivity is a total parameter for dissolved, dissociated substances.
Its value depends on the concentration and degrees of dissociation of the ions as well as the
temperature and migration velocity of the electric field.
PROCEDURE:
1. Calibrate the cell with standard 0.1N KCL solution of the conductivity 14.12 Siemens
at 300 °C.
2. Rinse the cell thoroughly with distilled water and carefully wipe with tissue paper.
3. Dip the cell in to sample solution, swirl the solution and wait up to 1 minute for
steady readings.
4. Note down the instrument readings and also temperature by thermometer.

Fig.7 CONDUCTIVITY METER

24
4.1.4 ALKALINITY
AIM: Alkalinity can be obtained by neutralizing OH-,CO32- and HCO3- with standard H2SO4
titration to pH 8.3 or de-colourization of phenolphthalein indicator will show complete
neutralization of OH- and 0.5 of CO32- , while to pH 4.4 or sharp change from yellow to pink
of methyl orange indicator will indicate total alkalinity.

PROCEDURE:

1. Take 100ml of the given sample in a conical flask.

2. Add one drop of 0.1N sodium thiosulphate solution to remove the free residual
chlorine if present.
3. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. The sample turns pink.
4. Run-down 0.02N standard sulphuric acid till the solution turns to colourless.
5. Note down the volume of H2SO4 added (V1).
6. Add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator the sample turns yellow.
7. Resume titration till the colors of the solution turns pink.
8. Note down the total volume of H2SO4 added (V2).

CALCULATIONS:

1. Phenolphthalein alkalinity(P)(mg/l) as CaCO3

= (V1 x normality of H2SO4 x 1000 x 50) / (Volume of sample taken)
2. Total alkalinity (T) as CaCO3 mg/l
= (V2 x normality of H2SO4 x 1000 x 50) / (Volume of sample taken)

Values of P and T OH- CO3- HCO3-

P=0 0 0 T
P<1/2T 0 2P T-2P
P=1/2T 0 2P 0
P>1/2T 2P-T 2T-2P 0
P=T T 0 0

4.1.5 ACIDITY

AIM: Acids contribute to corrosiveness and influence chemical reaction rates, chemical
speciation and biological process. Acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to react with

25
a strong base to a designated pH. The measured value may vary significantly sample is
known study minerals acids, weak acids such as carbonic and acetic acid and hydrolyzing
salts such as iron or aluminium sulphate may contribute to the measured acidity according to
the method of determination.
MINERAL ACIDITY: It is measured by titration to a pH of about 3.5, the methyl orange
end point (also known as Methyl Orange Acidity).

TOTAL ACIDITY: Titration of a sample to the phenolphthalein end point of pH 8.3

measures mineral acidity plus acidity due to weak acids, thus this is called as total acidity (or
Phenolphthalein Acidity).

APPARATUS:
1. pH meter
2. Sodium hydroxide titrant (0.02 N)
3. phenolphthalein indicator
4. Methyl orange indicator.

PROCEDURE:

1. Take 50 ml sample in a conical flask and add 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator
solution.
2. Fill the burette with 0.02N NaOH solution and titrate till the colour of solution just
changes to faint orange colour, indicating the end point. Record the volume of titrant
consumed as V1 in ml.

Calculate the methyl orange acidity using:

Methyl orange acidity (or mineral acidity) = (V1 x 1000) / (sample volume)

When the 0.02 N NaOH solution, used in titrations is not standardized, mineral acidity is
calculated using following:
Methyl orange acidity = (V1 x N x 50 x 1000) / (sample volume)

3. For phenolphthalein acidity test, add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution

to water sample from step-2 and continue the titration till the faint pink colour

develops in the solution (i.e. the end point of titration). Record the volume of titration

consumed as V2 (ml).

26
 Total acidity (or phenolphthalein acidity) = (V2 x N x50x1000) / (sample vol.)

4.1.6 HARDNESS
Hardness in water is that characteristic, which “prevents the lathering of soap”. This is due to
presence in water of certain salts of calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals dissolved in
it. A sample of hard water, when treated with soap does not produce lather, but on other hand
forms a white scum or precipitate. This precipitate is formed due to the formation of insoluble
soaps of calcium and magnesium.

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF HARDNESS:

1. Temporary or Carbonate Hardness:

It is caused by the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium and other

heavy metals and the carbonates of iron. Temporary hardness is mostly destroyed by mere
boiling of water, when bicarbonates are decomposed, will produce insoluble carbonates or
hydroxide, which are deposited as a crust at the bottom of vessel.

2. Permanent or Non-Carbonate Hardness:

It is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium, iron, and other
heavy metals. Unlike temporary hardness, permanent hardness is not destroyed on boiling.

In a hard water sample, the total hardness can be determined by titrating the ca2+ and Mg2+
present in an aliquot of the sample with Na2 EDTA solution, using NH4cl-, NH4OH buffer
solution of pH 10 and Eriochrome Black-T as the metal indicator.

Na2H2Y (Disodium EDTA solution) 2Na+ + H2Y-

Mg2+ + HD2-(blue) MgD (wine red) + H+

D + H2Y- Y- + HD- + H+
(Metal indicator complex, (metal EDTA (blue colour)
Wine red colour) complex colourless)

PROCEDURE:
1. Ethylene Diamine Tetra-Acetic Acid (EDTA) and its sodium salts form a chelated soluble
complex when added to a solution of certain cations.

27
2. A small amount of a dye such as Eriochrome black T is added to an aqueous solution
containing calcium and magnesium ions at a pH of 10± 0.1, the solution will become wine
red.

3. EDTA is then added as a titrant, the calcium and magnesium will be complexed.

4. After sufficient EDTA has been added to complex all the magnesium and calcium, the
solution will turn from wine red to blue. This is the end point of the titration.

Vol. of EDTA (ml) x Molarity of EDTA x106

Total hardness as CaCO3 (ppm) =
Volume of sample in ml

4.1.7 CHLORIDES
AIM: Chloride ion is determined by Mohr’s method, titration with Standard Silver Nitrate
solution in which silver chloride is precipitated at first. The end of titration is indicated by
formation of red silver chromate from excess AgNO3 and potassium chromate used as an
indicator in neutral to slightly alkaline solution.

AgNO3 + Cl- AgCl + NO3-

(White)
2 AgNO3 + K2CrO4 Ag2CrO4 + 2 KNO3
(Red)
INTERFERENCE:
Bromide, iodide, cyanide, sulfide, thiosulphate, sulphate, iron and phosphates are prime
sources of interference.
APPARATUS:
1. Burette
2. Pipettes
3. Conical flask.
REAGENTS:
1. Chloride free distilled water
2. Potassium chromate indicator
3. Standard silver nitrates (0.041 N)
4. Standard sodium chloride (0.041 N).

28
PROCEDURE:
1. Take 20 ml of the sample in a conical flask.
2. Adjust its pH to be between 7.0 and 8.0 either with sulphuric acid or sodium
hydroxide solution. Otherwise, AgOH is formed at high pH level or CrO4-2 is
converted to CrO7-2 at low pH levels.
3. Add 1 ml of potassium chromate to get light yellow colour.
4. Titrate with standard silver nitrate solution till colour change occurs from yellow to
brick red.
5. Note the volume of silver nitrate added (A).
6. If more quantity of potassium chromate is added, Ag2CrO4 may form too soon or not
soon enough.
7. For better accuracy, titrate with distilled water in the same manner.
8. Note the volume of silver nitrate added for distilled water (B).

CALCULATIONS:
Chloride in (mg/l) = (A-B) x normality of AgNO3 x 35.46 x 1000
Volume of the sample taken in ml

Fig.8 TEST FOR CHLORIDES

29
4.1.8 SULPHATES

AIM: Determination of sulphates in the given water sample.

APPARATUS: Conical flask, beakers, burette, pipettes, magnetic stirrer, UV
spectrophotometer.
REAGENTS:
1. STANDARD SULPHATE SOLUTION: Dissolve 0.1479gms of anhydrous Na2SO4 and
dilute to 100 ml.
2. Crystals of Barium chloride salt.
3. CONDITIONING REAGENT: Mix 25 ml of glycerol with the solution containing 15 ml
of concentrated HCl, 150 ml of distilled water. 50 ml of 95% ethyl alcohol or isopropyl
alcohol and 37.5gms of NaCl .
THEORY: sulphate ions are precipitated as BaSO4 in acidic medium with BaCl2. The
absorption of light by the precipitate suspension is measured by spectrophotometer at 420nm
or scattering of light nephelometer.
PROCEDURE:
1. Take 50ml or 100ml of sample in a beaker.
2. Add 2.5 or 5ml of conditioning reagent and mix well.
3. Stir the mixture thoroughly and add a pinch of BaCl2 crystals and continue stirring for
1 min.
4. Measure the turbidity developed on the spectrophotometer at 420nm before 10 minutes.
5. Prepare a calibration chart for the standard by plotting concentration on X-axis and
absorbance on Y-axis. Read the unknown concentration of sulphates in the given water
sample from the graph.

Fig.9 UV SPECTROPHOTOMETER
30
4.1.9 TOTAL SUSPENDED AND TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

AIM: To determine Total suspended and Dissolved solids of the given sample.
PRINCIPLE:
1. Total suspended solids are determined as the residue left on gooch crucible or a glass
fibre filter after drying in oven.
2. Total dissolved solids are determined as the residue left after evaporation and drying
of the filtered sample.
APPARATUS:

1. Gooch crucible /glass fibre filter.

2. Suction apparatus
3. Desiccator
4. Evaporating dishes
5. Oven
6. Water Bath
7. Whatman filter paper No.44

PROCEDURE:

1. A clean gooch crucible is ignited in a muffle furnace and after partial cooling in the
air, cool in a desiccator and weigh (W1).
2. Pour 100 ml well mix sample on gooch crucible or glass fibre filter which is kept on
filter flask and apply suction.
3. Wash the gooch crucible with 100 ml of distilled water to remove all soluble salts.
4. Carefully remove the glass fibre filter paper or gooch crucible and dry in an oven at
105°C for one hour.
5. Cool in a dessicator and weigh (W2)

CALCULATIONS:

1. Total suspended solids ( mg/l ) = ( W2 – W1 ) x 1000

Volume of sample taken in ml

2. Total dissolved solids ( mg/l ) = Total Solids – Suspended Solids

31
 FIG.10 DESICCATOR, EVAPORATING DISHES, WHATMAN FILTER
PAPER AND WEIGHING BALANCE
4.1.10 TOTAL SOLIDS
Total solids is to determine the ‘suspended and dissolved solids’ in the given water sample. It
is to find out how many dissolved and suspended solids are present in the given sample of the
seawater.
APPARATUS:
1. Evaporating dishes 20ml capacity
2. Hot air oven
3. Desiccators
4. Analytical Balance
5. Magnetic stirrer
6. Heat resistant gloves

PROCEDURE:

1. Heat the clean evaporating dish to 180 degree centigrade for 1hour.cool, desiccate, weigh
and store in Desiccators until ready for use.
2. Select volume of the sample which has residue between 25mg to 250mg, preferably
between 100 and 200 mg. This value may be inferred from these values of specific

32
conductance. To obtain a measurable residue; if necessary, add successive sample portion to
the same dish after evaporation.
3. Stir volume of sample with a magnetic stirrer to shake it vigorously.
4. Pipette this volume to a weighed evaporating dish placed on a steam bath. Evaporation
may be performed in a drying oven. The temperature should be lowered to approximately
980C to prevent boiling and splattering of the sample. After complete evaporation of water
from the residue, transfer the dish to an oven at 103 to 1050C and dry to constant mass, that
is, till the difference in the successive weightings is less than 0.5mg. Drying for a long
duration is to be done to eliminate necessity of checking for constant mass. The time for
drying to constant mass with a given type of sample when a number of samples of nearly
same type are to be analysed should be determined by trial.
5. Weigh the samples and note down the readings

Calculations:
Total residue in mg/l = 1000M/V
Where, M=mass in mg of Total Residue
V=volume in ml of the sample
4.2 TESTS ON CEMENT:
1. FINENESS TEST
2. SOUNDNESS TEST
3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CEMENT
4. STANDARD CONSISTENCY TEST
5. INITIAL SETTING TIME TEST
6. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CEMENT

4.2.1 FINENESS OF CEMENT

AIM: To determine fineness of cement using IS Sieve method.
APPARATUS:
1. IS Sieve No.9 i.e. 90μ confirming to IS 460-1962
2. Tray
3. Balance with 100gms weighing capacity.
THEORY: This test is carried out to check the proper grinding of cement. Fineness of
cement has an important bearing on the rate of hydration and hence on the rate of gain of
strength and also on rate of evolution of heat. Finer cement offers greater surface area for

33
hydration and hence faster development of strength. Different cements are ground to different
fineness. The disadvantage of fine grinding is that it is susceptible to air set and early
deterioration. Maximum number of particles in a sample of cement should have size less than
100 μ. The smallest size should have a size less about 1.5μ.
PROCEDURE:
1. 100gms of cement is weighed and placed in an IS Sieve No.9n breaking down any air
set lumps by fingers.
2. Holding the sieve with both the hands, sieve it continuously for 5-10min until all the
fine material is passing through. While sieving rotate the sieve continuously taking
care that the cement doesn’t spill out.
3. Collect the residue on the sieve and weigh it.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
% Fineness of Cement = weight passed through the sieve
Total weight of cement

4.2.2 SOUNDNESS ON CEMENT

AIM: To determine the Soundness of cement by Le-Chatlier mould.

APPARATUS:
1. A brass cylinder 3cm diameter, 3cm height
2. Two glass plates
3. Non porous enamel tray
4. Spatula
5. Heating device
6. Scale

PROCEDURE: Take 100gms of cement and add 0.78 times the water required for standard
consistency (0.78P). This cement paste is filled into the mould kept on a glass plate. The
whole assembly is immersed in water at a temperature of 270C – 320C and kept there for
24hours.Measure the distance between the indicator points. Submerge the mould again in
water. Heat the water and bring the boiling point in about 25-30 min and kept it boiling for 3
hours. Remove the mould from water, allow it to cool and measure the distance between the
indicator points. The difference between the two readings represents the expansion of cement.
This must be less than 10mm for ordinary Portland cement.

34
If this expansion is more than 10mm, cement is air dried for one week and the test is
repeated. After one week the expansion should be less than 5mm. If the cement fails in both
the cases the cement is said to be unsound.

Fig.11 LECHATLIER’S APPARATUS

4.2.3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CEMENT
AIM: To determine the specific gravity of cement sample.

APPARATUS:
1. Specific gravity bottle
2. Sensitive balance
3. Water
4. Kerosene
THEORY: Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of weight of given volume of solids to the
weight of equal volume of water at a specified temperature with both the weights taken in air.

PROCEDURE:
1. Specific gravity bottle is thoroughly cleaned and dried and the weight of the empty
specific gravity bottle is taken with stopper as W1.
2. About one third (1/3) of the bottle is filled with cement and weighed with the stopper
as W2.
3. Fill the bottle with kerosene till the neck and shake to fill the voids and measure the
weight which is taken as W3.
4. Empty the specific gravity bottle and clean it thoroughly. Fill it with kerosene only.
The weight is taken as W4.
5. Empty the bottle, clean the bottle and fill it with water. The weight is taken as W5.
Specific gravity is found by the formula.

35
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
• W1 = Empty weight of specific gravity bottle.
• W2 = Weight of bottle with 1/3rd of cement sample.
• W3 = Weight of bottle + cement + kerosene.
• W4 = Weight of bottle completely filled with kerosene.
• W5 = Weight of bottle completely filled with water.

Result: (W2-W1) (W4-W1)

Specific gravity of cement = X
(W2-W1) - (W3-W4) (W5-W1)

4.2.4 STANDARD CONSISTENCY OF CEMENT

AIM: To determine the normal consistency of cement.

APPARATUS:
1. Vicat Apparatus confirming to IS 4031(PART 5) 1988
2. Vicat plunger: 10mm diameter and 50 mm long.
3. Mould: 80 mm diameter and 40mm high
4. Glass plate
5. Non - Porous tray
6. Spatula
7. Balance
THEORY: For finding out initial Setting time, Final Setting time, Soundness of cement and
strength a parameter Known as Standard consistency or Normal Consistency is used. The
Standard Consistency of a cement paste is defined as percentage water will permit a vicat
plunger having l0 mm diameter and 50 mm long to penetrate to a depth of 33-35 mm from
the top of the mould.
PROCEDURE: Take about 500gms of Cement and prepare a paste with a weighed quantity
of water (24% by weight of cement) for the first trail in a non-porous tray. The paste must be
prepared in a standard manner and filled into the vicat mould within 3-5 minutes after
completing filling the mould, shake the mould to expel air. A Standard plunger, 10mm
diameter, 50mm long is attached and brought down to touch the surface of the paste by its
own weight .Take the reading by nothing the depth of penetration of the plunger. Conduct a
second trail (26% by weight of water) and find out the depth of penetration of plunger.
Similarly, conduct trials with higher and higher water/ cement ratios till such time plunger

36
penetrates for a depth of 33-35mm from the top. That particular percentage of water which
allows the plunger to penetrate only to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top is known as the
percentage of water required to produce a cement paste of Standard consistency denoted as
'P’. This test is conducted in a temperature in the rage of 250C to 290C and constant humidity
of 90%.
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:
PERCENTAGE OF DEPTH OF
INITIAL READING FINAL READING
WATER PENETRATION

GRAPH: A graph is plotted between Penetration in mm on X-axis and percentage of water

on Y-axis. The Standard Consistency of Cement
RESULT: The Standard Consistency of Cement is expressed as Percentage.

Fig.12 VICAT APPARATUS WITH A PLUNGER FOR DETERMINING STANDARD

CONSISTENCY OF CEMENT

37
4.2.5 INITIAL SETTING TIME OF CEMENT

AIM: To determine the setting time of cement.

APPARATUS:
1. Vicat's apparatus with needles for initial and final setting
2. Tray
3. Measuring jar
4. Balance
5. Stop watch
6. Weigh box
7. Glass plates.

THEORY: Time lag between the time at which water is added to the cement and the time at
which the needle fails to pierce the test block by 5+0.5 mm. from the bottom of the mould or
33-35 mm from the top, will be the initial setting time of cement. This test is used to detect
the deterioration of cement due to storage.

PROCEDURE: Take about 500gms of cement and prepare a cement paste of 0.85 times
water required for normal consistency(0.85P). Place the Vicat's mould on a non-porous plate
and place the cement paste in the mould and level the surface. For determining the initial
setting time, the needle of 1 mm2 or (1.13 mm diameter is fitted to the Vicat's apparatus).
Place the mould filled with cement paste under the needle. Lower the needle gently to touch
the surface at the cement and allows it to penetrate into the paste. Repeat the procedure at
regular intervals till the needle stops penetrating 5mm from the bottom of the paste mould.
The period of time between which the needle fails to pierce the test block by 5 mm is the
"initial setting time

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Conduct the experiment at 250 to 300C at a regular humidity of 90%.
2. After adding water, mix thoroughly for a minute.
3. Clean the needle after every penetration during every observation.

38
Fig.13 VICAT APPARATUS WITH INITIAL SET NEEDLE FOR DETERMINING INITIAL
SETTING TIME OF CEMENT

4.2.6 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CEMENT

AIM: To determine the Compressive Strength of Cement.

APPARATUS:

1. Cast Iron mould 70.6mm x 70.6mm x 70.6mm

2. Non -Porous tray,
3. Trowel
4. Balance
5. 8mm Steel rod

THEORY:

The Compressive Strength of hardened cement is the most important of all the properties.
Therefore the cement is always tested for its strength at the laboratory before the cement is
used in important works. Strength test are not made on neat cement paste of difficulties of

39
excessive shrinkage and subsequent cracking of neat cement. Strength of cement is indirectly
found on cement sand mortar in specific proportions . This sand shall conform to IS 650-
1991. Take 600gms of standard sand(Ennore Sand), 200gms of cement in a non-porous tray
and mix them with a trowel for one minute , then add water of quantity (P/4 + 3) % of
combined weight of cement and sand. Mix the three ingredients thoroughly until the mixture
is of uniform colour. The time of mixing should not be less than 3 minutes nor more than 4
minutes .Immediately after mixing the mortar is filled into the a cube mould of size 70.6mm
in three layers ,each layer is compacted by 25 blows with 8mm diameter rod or on the
vibrating equipment for 2 minutes .In the above manner 12 Cubes are casted for testing at
different times .Keep the compacted cube in the mould at a temperature of 250C to 290C and
at least 90 % relative humidity for 24 hours .Where the facility of standard temperature and
humidity is not available , the cubes may be kept under wet gunny bag to simulate 90%
relative humidity .After 24 hours the cubes are removed from the mould and immersed in
clean fresh water until taken out for testing.

PROCEDURE:

Three cubes are tested for compressive strength at the period 7 days and 28 days. The periods
being considered from the completion of vibration. The compressive Strength shall be
average of the three for each period.

FIG.14 DE-MOULDING OF CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES

40
Fig.15 TESTING OF CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES UNDER COMPRESSION
TESTING MACHINE

41
 CHAPTER 5

OBSERVATIONS AND GRAPHS

TABLE NO. 1
pH VALUES FOR THE SAMPLES COLLECTED IN
BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

SAMPLE LOCATION
S.No LATITUDE LONGITUDE pH

1. 17°32’308” 78°21’130” 6.77

2. 17°32’542” 78°21’041” 5.96
3. 17°32’96” 78°21’52” 6.82
4. 17°32’500” 78°21’33” 6.54
5. 17°32’675” 78°21’46” 6.42
6. 17°32’200” 78°21’300” 6.97
7. 17°32’550” 78°21’416” 8.42
8. 17°33’452” 78°21’795” 6.88
9. 17°32’300” 78°28’660” 6.72
10. 17°32’348” 78°28’883” 7.03
11. 17°32’237” 78°28’191” 6.18
12. 17°32’423” 78°28’086” 6.26
13. 17°32’676” 78°28’613” 6.01
14. 17°32’837” 78°28’836” 5.97
15. 17°32’940” 78°28’938” 6.67
16. 17°32’945” 78°28’940” 6.98
17. 17°32’959” 78°28’946” 6.86
18. 17°33’07” 78°28’03” 6.44
19. 17°33’90” 78°20’990” 6.46
20. 17°33’150” 78°20’976” 6.31
21. 17°33’209” 78°20’962” 6.84
22. 17°33’300” 78°20’843” 7.46
23. 17°33’369” 78°20’794” 7.27
24. 17°33’412” 78°20’762” 6.9
25. 17°33’476” 78°20’654” 6.83

42
 TABLE NO. 2
TEMPERATURE VALUES FOR THE SAMPLES COLLECTED
IN BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

SAMPLE LOCATION
TEMPERATURE
S.No LATTITUDE LONGITUDE (OC)
1. 17°32’308” 78°21’130” 18.7
2. 17°32’542” 78°21’041” 18.7
3. 17°32’96” 78°21’52” 18.9
4. 17°32’500” 78°21’33” 18.8
5. 17°32’675” 78°21’46” 18.6
6. 17°32’200” 78°21’300” 18.7
7. 17°32’550” 78°21’416” 18.6
8. 17°33’452” 78°21’795” 18.6
9. 17°32’300” 78°28’660” 18.9
10. 17°32’348” 78°28’883” 18.7
11. 17°32’237” 78°28’191” 18.8
12. 17°32’423” 78°28’086” 18.8
13. 17°32’676” 78°28’613” 18.7
14. 17°32’837” 78°28’836” 18.5
15. 17°32’940” 78°28’938” 18.6
16. 17°32’945” 78°28’940” 18.7
17. 17°32’959” 78°28’946” 18.7
18. 17°33’07” 78°28’03” 18.5
19. 17°33’90” 78°20’990” 18.6
20. 17°33’150” 78°20’976” 18.5
21. 17°33’209” 78°20’962” 18.8
22. 17°33’300” 78°20’843” 18.6
23. 17°33’369” 78°20’794” 18.6
24. 17°33’412” 78°20’762” 18.6
25. 17°33’476” 78°20’654” 18.6

43
 TABLE NO. 3
CONDUCTIVITY VALUES FOR THE SAMPLES COLLECTED IN
BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

SAMPLE LOCATION
CONDUCTIVITY
S.No LATTITUDE LONGITUDE (µS/cm)
1. 17°32’308” 78°21’130” 2.94
2. 17°32’542” 78°21’041” 2.73
3. 17°32’96” 78°21’52” 3.37
4. 17°32’500” 78°21’33” 2.82
5. 17°32’675” 78°21’46” 2.68
6. 17°32’200” 78°21’300” 3.31
7. 17°32’550” 78°21’416” 0.33
8. 17°33’452” 78°21’795” 1.67
9. 17°32’300” 78°28’660” 1.606
10. 17°32’348” 78°28’883” 1.029
11. 17°32’237” 78°28’191” 2.69
12. 17°32’423” 78°28’086” 2.66
13. 17°32’676” 78°28’613” 5.36
14. 17°32’837” 78°28’836” 5.49
15. 17°32’940” 78°28’938” 5.33
16. 17°32’945” 78°28’940” 4.25
17. 17°32’959” 78°28’946” 14.84
18. 17°33’07” 78°28’03” 14.86
19. 17°33’90” 78°20’990” 14.89
20. 17°33’150” 78°20’976” 8.88
21. 17°33’209” 78°20’962” 1.93
22. 17°33’300” 78°20’843” 2.13
23. 17°33’369” 78°20’794” 3.2
24. 17°33’412” 78°20’762” 1.38
25. 17°33’476” 78°20’654” 1.38

44
 TABLE NO. 4
ALKALINITY VALUES FOR THE SAMPLES COLLECTED IN
BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

SAMPLE LOCATION
ALKALINITY
S.No LATTITUDE LONGITUDE (mg/l)
1. 17°32’308” 78°21’130” 115
2. 17°32’542” 78°21’041” 115
3. 17°32’96” 78°21’52” 95
4. 17°32’500” 78°21’33” 100
5. 17°32’675” 78°21’46” 70
6. 17°32’200” 78°21’300” 70
7. 17°32’550” 78°21’416” 70
8. 17°33’452” 78°21’795” 115
9. 17°32’300” 78°28’660” 95
10. 17°32’348” 78°28’883” 75
11. 17°32’237” 78°28’191” 110
12. 17°32’423” 78°28’086” 120
13. 17°32’676” 78°28’613” 85
14. 17°32’837” 78°28’836” 105
15. 17°32’940” 78°28’938” 105
16. 17°32’945” 78°28’940” 80
17. 17°32’959” 78°28’946” 85
18. 17°33’07” 78°28’03” 90
19. 17°33’90” 78°20’990” 105
20. 17°33’150” 78°20’976” 80
21. 17°33’209” 78°20’962” 60
22. 17°33’300” 78°20’843” 55
23. 17°33’369” 78°20’794” 70
24. 17°33’412” 78°20’762” 45
25. 17°33’476” 78°20’654” 40

45
 TABLE NO. 5
ACIDITY VALUES FOR THE SAMPLES COLLECTED IN
BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

SAMPLE LOCATION
ACIDITY
S.No LATTITUDE LONGITUDE (mg/l)
1. 17°32’308” 78°21’130” 45
2. 17°32’542” 78°21’041” 65
3. 17°32’96” 78°21’52” 45
4. 17°32’500” 78°21’33” 100
5. 17°32’675” 78°21’46” 100
6. 17°32’200” 78°21’300” 45
7. 17°32’550” 78°21’416” 25
8. 17°33’452” 78°21’795” 30
9. 17°32’300” 78°28’660” 35
10. 17°32’348” 78°28’883” 40
11. 17°32’237” 78°28’191” 35
12. 17°32’423” 78°28’086” 50
13. 17°32’676” 78°28’613” 65
14. 17°32’837” 78°28’836” 45
15. 17°32’940” 78°28’938” 50
16. 17°32’945” 78°28’940” 45
17. 17°32’959” 78°28’946” 70
18. 17°33’07” 78°28’03” 50
19. 17°33’90” 78°20’990” 60
20. 17°33’150” 78°20’976” 35
21. 17°33’209” 78°20’962” 25
22. 17°33’300” 78°20’843” 20
23. 17°33’369” 78°20’794” 45
24. 17°33’412” 78°20’762” 30
25. 17°33’476” 78°20’654” 40

46
 TABLE NO. 6
TOTAL HARDNESS VALUES FOR THE SAMPLES COLLECTED IN
BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

SAMPLE LOCATION
TOTAL
S.No LATTITUDE LONGITUDE HARDNESS (mg/l)
1. 17°32’308” 78°21’130” 170
2. 17°32’542” 78°21’041” 515
3. 17°32’96” 78°21’52” 142.5
4. 17°32’500” 78°21’33” 172.5
5. 17°32’675” 78°21’46” 102.5
6. 17°32’200” 78°21’300” 130
7. 17°32’550” 78°21’416” 70
8. 17°33’452” 78°21’795” 90
9. 17°32’300” 78°28’660” 65
10. 17°32’348” 78°28’883” 67.5
11. 17°32’237” 78°28’191” 95
12. 17°32’423” 78°28’086” 172.5
13. 17°32’676” 78°28’613” 137.5
14. 17°32’837” 78°28’836” 1125
15. 17°32’940” 78°28’938” 640
16. 17°32’945” 78°28’940” 1165
17. 17°32’959” 78°28’946” 540
18. 17°33’07” 78°28’03” 1200
19. 17°33’90” 78°20’990” 155
20. 17°33’150” 78°20’976” 165
21. 17°33’209” 78°20’962” 60
22. 17°33’300” 78°20’843” 52.5
23. 17°33’369” 78°20’794” 1127.5
24. 17°33’412” 78°20’762” 100
25. 17°33’476” 78°20’654” 40

47
 TABLE NO. 7
CHLORIDES VALUES FOR THE SAMPLES COLLECTED IN
BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

SAMPLE LOCATION
CHLORIDES
S.No LATTITUDE LONGITUDE (mg/l)
1. 17°32’308” 78°21’130” 625
2. 17°32’542” 78°21’041” 487.5
3. 17°32’96” 78°21’52” 697.5
4. 17°32’500” 78°21’33” 487.5
5. 17°32’675” 78°21’46” 522.5
6. 17°32’200” 78°21’300” 722.5
7. 17°32’550” 78°21’416” 50
8. 17°33’452” 78°21’795” 227.5
9. 17°32’300” 78°28’660” 222.5
10. 17°32’348” 78°28’883” 190
11. 17°32’237” 78°28’191” 675
12. 17°32’423” 78°28’086” 145
13. 17°32’676” 78°28’613” 500
14. 17°32’837” 78°28’836” 1612.45
15. 17°32’940” 78°28’938” 375
16. 17°32’945” 78°28’940” 1325
17. 17°32’959” 78°28’946” 5279.85
18. 17°33’07” 78°28’03” 5419.23
19. 17°33’90” 78°20’990” 5550
20. 17°33’150” 78°20’976” 3250
21. 17°33’209” 78°20’962” 410
22. 17°33’300” 78°20’843” 455
23. 17°33’369” 78°20’794” 897.5
24. 17°33’412” 78°20’762” 270
25. 17°33’476” 78°20’654” 257.5

48
 TABLE NO. 8
SULPHATES VALUES FOR THE SAMPLES COLLECTED IN
BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

SAMPLE LOCATION
SULPHATES
S.No LATTITUDE LONGITUDE (mg/l)
1. 17°32’308” 78°21’130” 33.643
2. 17°32’542” 78°21’041” 55.042
3. 17°32’96” 78°21’52” 148.818
4. 17°32’500” 78°21’33” 119.916
5. 17°32’675” 78°21’46” 119.766
6. 17°32’200” 78°21’300” 166.077
7. 17°32’550” 78°21’416” 24.441
8. 17°33’452” 78°21’795” 82.375
9. 17°32’300” 78°28’660” 89.419
10. 17°32’348” 78°28’883” 50.542
11. 17°32’237” 78°28’191” 69.857
12. 17°32’423” 78°28’086” 70.327
13. 17°32’676” 78°28’613” 98.023
14. 17°32’837” 78°28’836” 105.545
15. 17°32’940” 78°28’938” 103.688
16. 17°32’945” 78°28’940” 102.333
17. 17°32’959” 78°28’946” 179.145
18. 17°33’07” 78°28’03” 165.071
19. 17°33’90” 78°20’990” 167.761
20. 17°33’150” 78°20’976” 141.00
21. 17°33’209” 78°20’962” 74.840
22. 17°33’300” 78°20’843” 95.144
23. 17°33’369” 78°20’794” 98.419
24. 17°33’412” 78°20’762” 69.836
25. 17°33’476” 78°20’654” 70.140

49
 TABLE NO. 9
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS VALUES FOR THE SAMPLES COLLECTED IN
BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

SAMPLE LOCATION
S.No LATTITUDE LONGITUDE TSS (mg/l)

1. 17°32’308” 78°21’130” 400

2. 17°32’542” 78°21’041” 550
3. 17°32’96” 78°21’52” 200
4. 17°32’500” 78°21’33” 600
5. 17°32’675” 78°21’46” 1200
6. 17°32’200” 78°21’300” 5000
7. 17°32’550” 78°21’416” 50
8. 17°33’452” 78°21’795” 350
9. 17°32’300” 78°28’660” 350
10. 17°32’348” 78°28’883” 100
11. 17°32’237” 78°28’191” 1150
12. 17°32’423” 78°28’086” 900
13. 17°32’676” 78°28’613” 700
14. 17°32’837” 78°28’836” 15850
15. 17°32’940” 78°28’938” 1300
16. 17°32’945” 78°28’940” 1100
17. 17°32’959” 78°28’946” 2250
18. 17°33’07” 78°28’03” 1350
19. 17°33’90” 78°20’990” 2400
20. 17°33’150” 78°20’976” 550
21. 17°33’209” 78°20’962” 500
22. 17°33’300” 78°20’843” 300
23. 17°33’369” 78°20’794” 300
24. 17°33’412” 78°20’762” 7550
25. 17°33’476” 78°20’654” 150

50
 TABLE NO. 10
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS VALUES FOR THE SAMPLES COLLECTED IN
BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

SAMPLE LOCATION
S.No LATTITUDE LONGITUDE TDS (mg/l)

1. 17°32’308” 78°21’130” 900

2. 17°32’542” 78°21’041” 2000
3. 17°32’96” 78°21’52” 2600
4. 17°32’500” 78°21’33” 2150
5. 17°32’675” 78°21’46” 1800
6. 17°32’200” 78°21’300” 4050
7. 17°32’550” 78°21’416” 300
8. 17°33’452” 78°21’795” 1400
9. 17°32’300” 78°28’660” 1350
10. 17°32’348” 78°28’883” 750
11. 17°32’237” 78°28’191” 2400
12. 17°32’423” 78°28’086” 2650
13. 17°32’676” 78°28’613” 4650
14. 17°32’837” 78°28’836” 7600
15. 17°32’940” 78°28’938” 7750
16. 17°32’945” 78°28’940” 4800
17. 17°32’959” 78°28’946” 14150
18. 17°33’07” 78°28’03” 14450
19. 17°33’90” 78°20’990” 13500
20. 17°33’150” 78°20’976” 9600
21. 17°33’209” 78°20’962” 2250
22. 17°33’300” 78°20’843” 2350
23. 17°33’369” 78°20’794” 4000
24. 17°33’412” 78°20’762” 1250
25. 17°33’476” 78°20’654” 1450

51
 TABLE NO. 11
TOTAL SOLIDS VALUES FOR THE SAMPLES COLLECTED IN
BOLLARAM INDUSTRIAL AREA

SAMPLE LOCATION
TOTAL SOLIDS
S.No LATTITUDE LONGITUDE (mg/l)
1. 17°32’308” 78°21’130” 1300
2. 17°32’542” 78°21’041” 2550
3. 17°32’96” 78°21’52” 2800
4. 17°32’500” 78°21’33” 2750
5. 17°32’675” 78°21’46” 3000
6. 17°32’200” 78°21’300” 1050
7. 17°32’550” 78°21’416” 350
8. 17°33’452” 78°21’795” 1750
9. 17°32’300” 78°28’660” 1700
10. 17°32’348” 78°28’883” 850
11. 17°32’237” 78°28’191” 3500
12. 17°32’423” 78°28’086” 3500
13. 17°32’676” 78°28’613” 5350
14. 17°32’837” 78°28’836” 23450
15. 17°32’940” 78°28’938” 9050
16. 17°32’945” 78°28’940” 5900
17. 17°32’959” 78°28’946” 16400
18. 17°33’07” 78°28’03” 15800
19. 17°33’90” 78°20’990” 15900
20. 17°33’150” 78°20’976” 10150
21. 17°33’209” 78°20’962” 2750
22. 17°33’300” 78°20’843” 2650
23. 17°33’369” 78°20’794” 4300
24. 17°33’412” 78°20’762” 8800
25. 17°33’476” 78°20’654” 1600

52
 GRAPH NO. 1

pH

9
8
8.42

7
6
5
pH

4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sample No.
GRAPH NO. 2

CONDUTIVITY

16
14.89
14

12
Conductivity

10
(µs/cm)

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sample No.

53
 GRAPH NO. 3

ALKALINITY

140

120
120
Alkalinity (mg/l)

100

80

60

40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sample No.

GRAPH NO. 4
ACIDITY
120
100
100
Acidity (mg/l)

80

60

40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sample No.

54
 GRAPH NO. 5

TOTAL HARDNESS

1400
1200
Total Hardness (mg/l)

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sample No.

GRAPH NO. 6

CHLORIDES

6000
5550
5000
Chlorides (mg/l)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sample No.

55
 GRAPH NO. 7

SULPHATES

200
179.145
180

160
Sulphates (mg/l)

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sample No.

GRAPH NO.8

TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS

18000
15850
16000

14000
TSS (mg/l)

12000

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sample No.

56
 GRAPH NO. 9

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

16000
14450
Total Dissolved Solids

14000

12000

10000
(mg/l)

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sample No.

GRAPH NO. 10

TOTAL SOLIDS

25000
23450
Total Solids (mg/l)

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sample No.

57
 OBSERVATIONS ON PHYSICAL FEATURE OF
CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES

Fig.16 FORMATION OF EFFLORESENCE ON THE CUBES CURED IN

DISTILLED, ACIDIC, HARD AND CHLORIDE WATER

58
 CHAPTER 6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

TABLE NO.12
RESULT PROFORMA FOR TESTS ON WATER

TOLERABLE MAXIMUM
S.No PARAMETER CONCENTRATION CONCENTRATION RESULT
(ppm) (ppm)
1 Ph 6-8 7.03 WITHIN LIMITS
2 ALKALINITY 250 100 LIMIT EXCEEDED
3 ACIDITY 50 120 WITHIN LIMITS
4 HARDNESS 1000 1200 LIMIT EXCEEDED
5 CHLORIDES 1000 2800 WITHIN LIMITS
6 SULPHATES 400 5550 LIMIT EXCEEDED
TOTAL DISSOLVED
7 3200 179.145 WITHIN LIMITS
SOLIDS
TOTAL SUSPENDED
8 2000 15850 WITHIN LIMITS
SOLIDS

TABLE NO. 13
RESULT PROFORMA FOR TESTS ON CEMENT

DESCRIPTION OF TEST ACTUAL

S.No IS CODE LIMITS REMARKS
FOR CEMENT TEST RESULT

SHOULD BE
WITHIN
1 FINENESS 91% GREATER THAN
LIMITS
90%

2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 3.137 3.15 --

MUST NOT EXCEED WITHIN

3 SOUNDNESS 3.5mm
10MM LIMITS

4 STANDARD CONSISTENCY 32% 28%< P < 34% --

MUST NOT BE LESS WITHIN

5 INITIAL SETTING TIME 90min
THAN 30 MIN LIMITS

59
 TABLE NO. 14
7 – DAY COMPRESSIVE TEST VALUES ON CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES

7-Day TEST FOR

Sample – 1 Sample – 2 Sample – 3 AVERAGE
SPECIMENS IN (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)

40.8 37.2 39.2 39.06

DISTILLED WATER
46.8 46.8 46.8 46.8
ACIDIC WATER
37.2 42 38.8 39.33
HARD WATER
39 38 40 39
CHLORIDE WATER

TABLE NO. 15
28 – DAY COMPRESSIVE TEST VALUES ON CEMENT-MORTAR CUBES

28-days TEST FOR Sample – 1 Sample – 2 Sample – 3 AVERAGE

SPECIMENS IN (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)

DISTILLED WATER 56 54 55 55

ACIDIC WATER 51.2 52 52.8 52

HARD WATER 48.8 48 50 48.93

CHLORIDE WATER 50 51.2 50.2 50.4

60
 CONCLUSIONS
Bore water curing containing NaCl slightly accelerates the early strength of concrete but
it reduces the 28days strength of concrete by 10 to 15%. Water containing large quantities
of chlorides may cause efflorescence and persistent dampness. During the chloride
exposure, ions will leach out from the cement paste e.g. OH- AND SO42-. Concurrently
the chloride and sodium concentration will drop in the exposure liquid. The pH is
increased when NaCl was added. Such water should not be used where appearance of the
concrete is important or where a plaster-finish is to be applied.

Efflorescence in a deposit of mineral salts on the surface or concrete, plaster or masonry,

which contain varying mixtures of carbonates, sulphides, chlorides and salts or calcium,
sodium and related metals. Efflorescence may be scrubbed off with a water or dilute acid
(muriatic acid or acidic acid) if it is in the soluble form or not. Well bonded to the
background is in the insoluble form.

Water containing large quantities of chlorides tends to cause persistent dampness and
surface efflorescence. The results indicate that there is significant decrease in
compressive strength of all cement-mortar cubes at 28 days and the rate of decrease in
compressive strength. Leaching during chloride exposure may significantly alter the
chloride profile. First of all, the leaching removes the solid material from the cement
paste, primarily, Ca(OH)2, and then calcium from C-S-H gel. This opens up the pore
structure and reduces the chloride binding capacity of the cement paste.

Carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium and potassium have different effects on the
setting times of different cements. Sodium carbonate can cause very rapid setting. In large
concentrations, these salts can materially reduce concrete strength.

Latest IS 456:2000 prohibits use of water containing large amounts of NaCl for mixing
and curing of RCC and pre stressed concrete work.

61
 REMEDIAL MEASURES

1.Portland slag cement is relatively better resistant to chlorides, soils and water containing
excess amounts of sulphate and alkali metals and to acidic waters. Portland slag cement
exhibits very low diffusivity to chlorides ions and such slag cement gives better resistance to
cement of steel reinforcement.

2.As concrete made with seawater may have higher early strength than normal concrete,
strengths at later ages (after 28 days) may be lower. This strength reduction can be
compensated for by reducing the water-cement ratio.

62
CONCLUSIONS

 Efflorescence is a deposit of mineral salts on the surface of concrete plaster or

masonry, which contains varying mixtures of carbonates, sulphides chlorides and salts
of calcium, sodium and related metals.
 Bore water curing increases the 7day compressive strength of cement mortar cubes to
and 28 days strength reduced to 8-15%.

RECOMMENDATIONS

 From the present study it is therefore strongly recommended that the use of Bore
water for concrete casting and curing should not be rejected or turned down, but can
be used if the fresh water availability is less in any locality
 To get the information on Long time impact of bore water on cement mortar such as
stability ,creep, durability further investigation is required.

ACID RESISTANCE

Portland cement concrete usually does not have good resistance to

acids. Some weak acids however can be tolerated, particularly if the
exposure is occasional (Table 1). There are essentially three ways to
improve concrete resistance to acids, (1) choosing the right concrete composition to make it
as impermeable as possible, (2) isolating it from the environment by using a suitable coating
or (3) modifying the environment to make it less aggressive to the concrete.

Acids attack concrete by dissolving both hydrated and unhydrated cement compounds as well
as calcareous aggregate. In most cases, the chemical reaction forms water-soluble calcium
compounds, which are then leached away. Siliceous aggregates are resistant to most acids
and other chemicals and are sometimes specified to improve the chemical resistance of
concrete.

Concrete deterioration increases as the pH of the acid decreases from 6.5. In fact, no
hydraulic cement concrete, regardless of its composition, will hold up for long if exposed to a
solution with a pH of 3.0 or lower. To protect concrete from such severely acidic
environments, surface protective treatments are often used.

63
Table 1: Acid Attack and Resistance of Concrete
Acid attack increases with Acid resistance increases with
• High Ca++ content in a dense hardened
• increase in acid concentration
cement paste (low w/cm-ratio)
• constant and fast renewal of acidic solution at
• low proportions of soluble components in
the concrete/liquid interface
concrete
• higher temperatures
• Creation of a durable protective layer of
reaction products with low diffusion
• higher pressure
coefficient (transport properties)

CHLORIDE EXPOSURE

The water saturated samples are exposed to NaCl concenteration in sea water. During the
chloride exposure, ions will leach out from the cement paste e.g. OH- AND SO42-.
Concurrently the chloride and sodium concentration wil drop in the exposure liquid. The pH
increased when NaCl was added.

LEACHING

Leaching during chloride exposure may significantly alter the chloride profile. Depending
upon the paste composition the leached zone may be 0.1-1mm thick. The chloride profiles in
the dense pastes(low w/c ratio) may be substantially changed by leaching. This is because the
leached zone is wide relative to total chloride ingress depth. First of all, the leaching removes
the solid material from the cement paste, primarily, Ca(OH)2, and then calcium from C-S-H
gel. This opens up the pore structure and reduces the chloride binding capacity of the cement
paste.

An increased temperature is seen to accelerate the chloride ingress. This may mainly caused
by thermal activation of the diffusion process. The chloride binding is reduced when the
temperature is increased.

ALKALI CARBONATE AND BICARBONATE

Carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium and potassium have different effects on the setting
times of different cements. Sodium carbonate can cause very rapid setting, bicarbonates can
either accelerate or retard the set. In large concentrations, these salts can materially reduce
concrete strength. When the sum of the dissolved salts exceeds 1000 ppm, tests for their
effect on setting time and 28-day strength should be made. The possibility of aggravated
alkali-aggregate reactions should also be considered.

64
OTHER COMMON SALTS
Carbonates of calcium and magnesium are not very soluble in water and are seldom found in
sufficient concentration to affect the strength of concrete. Bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium are present in some municipal waters. Concentrations up to 400 ppm of
bicarbonate in these forms are not considered harmful.
ACID WATERS
Acceptance of acid mixing water should be based on the concentration (in parts per million)
of acids in the water. Occasionally, acceptance is based on the pH, which is a measure of the
hydrogen-ion concentration on a log scale. The pH value is an intensity index and is not the
best measure of potential acid or base reactivity. The pH of neutral water is 7.0; values below
7.0 indicate acidity and those above 7.0 alkalinity (a base). Generally, mixing waters
containing hydrochloric, sulfuric, and other common inorganic acids in concentrations as
high as 10,000 ppm have no adverse effect on strength. Acid waters with pH values less than
3.0 may create handling problems and should be avoided if possible. Organic acids, such as
tannic acid, can have a significant effect on strength at higher concentrations.
SEAWATER
Seawater containing up to 35,000 ppm of dissolved salts is generally suitable as mixing water
for concrete not containing steel. About 78% of the salt is sodium chloride, and 15% is
chloride and sulfate of magnesium. Although concrete made with seawater may have higher
early strength than normal concrete, strengths at later ages (after 28 days) may be lower. This
strength reduction can be compensated for by reducing the water-cement ratio.

INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER
Most waters carrying industrial wastes have less than 4000 ppm of total solids. When such
water is used as mixing water in concrete, the reduction in compressive strength is generally
not greater than about 10%-15%. Wastewaters such as those from tanneries, paint factories,
coke plants, and chemical and galvanizing plants may contain harmful impurities. It is best to
test any wastewater that contains even a few hundred parts per million of unusual solids.

65
CONCLUSION

This report deals with the chloride ingress in cement paste and mortar. They are exposed to
28 days in NaCl solution. Replacement of cement or addition of fly ash and ground blast
furnace slag increases the chloride binding since these mineral additives form additional
calcium aluminate hydrates in their reaction, while silica fume replacements will decrease the
chloride binding.
SCOPE FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
In continuation of or supplementary to the present project a number of further examinations
would be interesting. Some of these are mentioned below.
SCOPE FOR FURTHER STUDY

To get the information on Long time impact of bore water on cement mortar such as stability
,creep, durability further investigation is required and observations and strength tests are to
be performed on cement-mortar cubes at 90 days, 180 days and 360 days.

Water containing large quantities of chlorides(e.g. sea water) tends to cause persistent
dampness and surface efflorescence. The results indicate that there is significant decrease in
compressive strength of all cement-mortar cubes at 28 days and the rate of decrease in
compressive strength also gradually increases with the increase in concentration of Na2CO3.

66
 REFERENCES

1. IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION ON GROUNDWATER QUALITY – a case

study of Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore, India by B. S. Shankar & N. Balasubramanya &
M.T.Maruthesha Reddy

2.”CHLORIDE INGRESS IN CEMENT PASTE AND MORTAR MEASURED BY

ELECTRON PROBE MICRO ANALYSIS” by Department of structural engineering and
technical university of DENMARK.
3. IG MICROMED ENVIRONMENTAL, INC, 90-12860 Clarke place, Richmond, B.C.,
V6V-1H4.

This journal gives the information about the sampling procedures, labeling of sample
container and water sample field sheet.

4. DEPARTMENT OF WATER, 168 St Georges Terrace, Perth Western Australia.

This journal gives the information about “WATER SAMPLE PRESERVATION

TECHNIQUES”

5. “A REVIEW OF CHLORIDE BINDING IN CEMENTITIOUS SYSTEMS” by

Dr.Harald Justnes, SINTEF Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cement and Concrete,
N-7034 Trondheim, Norway.

6. CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY by M.S.SHETTY.

67

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