B.Tech Civil Project Report SEM VIII

SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
B.Tech Civil Project Report SEM VIII

On
“SUSTAINABLE STORMWATER STORAGE
SYSTEM – A CASE STUDY”
Submitted by
Mr. Gundu Hari Srinivas
Mr. Patil Kaustubh Anil
Mr. Pimple Vishad Arvind
Mr. Brahmankar Aniket Arvind
Mr. Sawardekar Varad Vinod
Mr. Kawale Sumit Balaji
Under the guidance of
Dr. A.R.Kambekar
Civil Engineering Department
Year 2020-2021
In partial fulfillment for the award of degree in
Bachelor of Technology in
Civil Engineering
SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that
REGISTRATION NO. NAME
C1710033 GUNDU HARI SRINIVAS
C1710049 PATIL KAUSTUBH ANIL
C1710041 PIMPLE VISHAD ARVIND
C1710071 BRAHMANKAR ANIKET ARVIND
C1820010 SAWARDEKAR VARAD VINOD
C1820007 KAWALE SUMIT BALAJI
Students of B.Tech (Civil Engineering) have submitted project report on
“SUSTAINABLE STORMWATER STORAGE SYSTEM – A CASE STUDY” for
partial fulfillment for award of the degree in Civil Engineering. In this volume, they
have submitted a satisfactory report about the project, in the academic year 2020-
2021, under my supervision.
Dr. A.R.Kambekar EXTERNAL EXAMINER

Project Guide
Associate Professor
Civil Engineering Department,
Sardar Patel College of Engineering,
Bhavan’s Campus, Munshi Nagar,
Andheri (W), Mumbai-400058.
DECLARATION
We declare that this written submission represents our ideas in our own words and
where others’ ideas or words have been included, we have adequately cited and
referenced the original sources. We also declare that we have adhered to all
principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or
fabricated or falsified any idea/fact/data/source in our submission. We understand
that any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary action by the college
and can also evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been properly
cited or from whom proper permission has not been taken when needed.
(Gundu Hari Srinivas)
(Patil Kaustubh Anil)
(Pimple Vishad Arvind)
(Brahmankar Aniket Arvind)
(Sawardekar Varad Vinod)
(Kawale Sumit Balaji)
Date: 10/06/2021
ACKNOWLEGMEMENT
It gives an immense pleasure to express our gratitude and respect to all those who
has guided us in the project.
We would like to thank our principal Dr. P.H Sawant, our H.O.D Dr.M.M.Murudi,
and our project guide Dr. A.R.Kambekar, for their inspiration, guidance and co-
operation at every moment and at every stage of the project.
We would also like to thank
 Mr. Pranjal Patil, Assistant Executive Engineer, PWD Nanded

 Mr. Harshal Pathak
For their consistent contribution and deliberate guidance in successful
completion of our project.
We would also like to thank all our friends for their kind help in bringing out this
report in stipulated time.
ABSTRACT
Flood is one of the most significant disaster in the world. More than half of global flood
damages occur in Asia. Causes of extreme floods are due to natural factors such as heavy rainfall,
high tides etc. & human factors such as blocking of channels or aggravation of drainage channels,
improper land use, deforestation in head water regions etc. Flood results in losses of life & damages
to properties. Managing risks from extreme events is a crucial component of flood management.
Good planning & management can help in curbing the risk of flooding over the years, land
encroachment along the banks of the rivers have disrupted its course, while untreated sewage,
wastewater, industrial effluents, and garbage have clogged the river.
Shockingly, the storm water drainage system in Mumbai was built during the British rule. At
present, the drainage system is capable of handling 25 mm rain. Roads get flooded, heavy rains
stopped everything in Mumbai, leading to the death of many people and leaving thousands of
commuters stranded across the city as transportation services failed to serve. In several parts of the
city, waist-high water was seen and it also entered in thousands of houses.
Gutters have been constructed but they are insufficient to prevent flooding. When there is heavy
rainfall, there are higher chances of water logging and the gutters are opened, but still gutters get
filled and water has no place for outing.
So to prevent this we have been planning for the assessment of flood in the city with the help
of drainage system. Our aim is to find the flood prone areas in the city and design a drainage system
which can prevent it from flooding. According to our theory, to mitigate the floods, we can
construct ponds which provides a way for the water to drain out or get stored into them. In summer,
this stored water can be provided in drought prone areas where thousands of villages are suffering
without water or can be used for small scale activities, within the city. This will also reduce the
issues of water cuts, and hence will serve the city during days of drought periods.
Also, we can build underground storage system, as implemented in Japan, for mitigation of
floods along with stormwater storage, study of its feasibility in city like Mumbai and points where
the underground storage tanks can be provided. So, to work on it, we are planning to take a small
stretch of land such as King Circle and Hindmata, where flooding occurs frequently even under
average rains, work on this area to provide a solution, which will be viable to be implemented and
serve the region successfully and then its contrivance can be made in other parts of city.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
CH.NO. TOPIC PAGE
NO.
1 INTRODUCTION 1.
1.1 OVERVIEW 1
1.2 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES 1
1.3 PROSPECTED OUTCOMES 2
1.4 SCOPE OF WORK 3
1.5 ORGANIZATION OF WORK 4
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5.
2.1 PROBLEMS FACED BY PEOPLE 5
2.2 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE 6
2.2.1 DIVERGENT TERRAIN AND GEOGRAPHY 6
2.2.2 INCREASING RAINFALL IN THE REGION 7
2.2.3 ENCROACHMENT OF LAND AND
CONTAMINATION ALONG NATURAL 7
DRAINAGES
2.2.4 DIMINISHING OF MANGROVES 8
2.2.5 INSUFFICIENT AND INEFFICIENT
9
DRAINAGE SYSYTEM
2.2.6 CONCRETIZATION 10
2.2.7 IMPROPER STORAGE OF RAINWATER 10
2.3 CASE STUDY ON MUMBAI’S EXISTING
11
SWD SYSTEM
2.4 NEED OF SUSTAINABLE STORM WATER
16
STORAGE SYSTEM (SSWSS)
2.5 CASE STUDY OF SPONGE CITY CONCEPT
17
OF CHINA
2.5.1 BACKGROUND RESEARCH 17
2.5.2 CONCEPT OF SPONGE CITY 19
2.5.3 IMPLEMENTATION 19
2.5.4 ADVANTAGES 20
2.5.5 CONCLUSION 20
2.6 CASE STUDY OF FLOOD MANAGEMENT
21
IN ROTTERDAM
2.7 CASE STUDY OF G-CANS PROJECT 26
2.7.1 G-CANS PROJECT 26
2.7.2 FURUKAWA RESERVOIR PROJECT 28
2.7.3 CONCLUSION ON JAPAN’S FLOOD
29
CONTROL SYSTEM
2.8 CASE STUDY ON SUSTAINABLE
UNDERGROUND WATER DRAINAGE 30
SYSTEM FOR MUMBAI CITY
3 METHODOLOGY 32
3.1 FLOWCHART OF WORK 32
3.2 SCOPING 33
3.2.1 SURVEY 33
3.2.2 QUESTIONNAIRE 33
4 MODEL 36
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO TILE DRAIN SYSTEM 36
4.2 OUR MODEL 38
4.2.1 SERVICE TILE DRAIN 38
4.2.2 MAIN TILE DRAIN 40
4.2.3 CONCRETE CONVEYANCE PIPE /
41
CONCRETE FLOW PIPE
4.2.4 CONNECTING PIPES 41
4.2.5 UNDERGROUND STORM WATER
STORAGE TANKS
41
4.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF MODEL 43
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 45
5.1 RESPONSE OF QUESTIONAIRE 45
5.1.1 RESPONSES 45
5.1.2 CONCLUSION 46
5.2 CATCHMENT AREA DETERMINATION 47
5.2.1 PROCESS OF DETERMINATION OF
CATCHMENT AREA
47
5.2.2 HAVERSINE DISTANCE FORMULA 49
5.3 PROVISION OF COMPONENTS INVOLVED 54
5.4 RAINFALL DATA ANALYSIS AND IDF
59
CURVES
5.5 DISTINCT NAMING OF PIPES FOR
67
ANALYSIS
5.6 AREA DIVISIONS OF CATCHMENT 69
5.7 PIPE FLOW DIRECTIONS 71
5.8 INTENSITY COMPUTATIONS FOR EACH
73
CATCHMENT
5.9 CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS 79
5.10 DIMENSIONS OF COMPONENTS
89
INVOLVED
FEASIBILITY OF PROJECT 90
FUTURE SCOPE 91
CONCLUSION 92
LIMTATIONS OF PROJECT 93
REFERENCE LIST 94
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig No. Name Page no.

2.1 Mumbai’s Divergent terrain and Geography 6
2.2 Land Encroachment and Contamination along natural drainages 8
2.3 Diminishing of Mangroves 9
2.4 Concretization of roads 10
2.5 Map showing location of outfalls in Greater Mumbai 13
2.6 Venn diagram showing Sustainable development Goals 16
2.7 China’s Sponge City Concept 18
2.8 Flooding of low lying quays of Noordereiland in Rotterdam on Dec 9, 2011 22
2.9 Placeholders for demountable barriers in front of basement windows in city of Kampen 22
Placeholder for demountable barriers (in the pillar, fence will be replaced by wooden
2.10 boards) at the riverside quay in Kampen. In the pavement a hidden piston embankment 23
can be seen
2.11 Floating pavilion in Rijnhaven in Rotterdam 23
2.12 Mechanism of G-Cans Project 27
2.13 Furukawa Underground Regulating Reservoir under Construction 28
2.14 Study area showing Hindmata to Parel, Mumbai 30
2.15 Flood Prone Study Area (Using Q-GIS Software) 31
4.1 Tile Drain System 37
4.2 Model 38
4.3 Service Tile Drain Assembly 39
4.4 Mesh / Net 40
4.5 Main Tile drain Assembly 41
4.6 Underground Storm water Storage Tanks 42
5.1 Catchment Area shape from Google Earth 47
5.2 Catchment Area considered 48
5.3 Flow directions along Road leading towards NH3 51
5.4 Catchment Area considered for analysis 52
5.5 Main and Service Tile Drain Layout 57
5.6 Concrete Pipe Layout 58
5.7 Graph of maximum daily rainfall v/s year 65
5.8 IDF curve for 5-year return period 66
5.9 Distinct naming of pipes for analysis 68
5.10 Catchment distribution for each pipe 70
5.11 Flow direction in main(MR) and service(SR) tile drain pipe 71
5.12 Flow direction in concrete pipe 72
5.13 Law of continuity 81
LIST OF TABLES
Table no. Name Page No.

2.1 Summary of SWD system in Mumbai 11
2.2 Summary of Outfalls system in Mumbai 11
2.3 Storm Intensities for use in WALLRUS Model 14
2.4 Toolbox of adaptive measures studied in Feijenoord, Rotterdam
24
case study
5.1 Catchment area corner points details 49
5.2 Corner Point details for catchment area considered for analysis 53
5.3 Service Tile Drain details 55
5.4 Main Tile Drain details 56
5.5 Concrete Pipe details 56
5.6 Annual rainfall over past 25 years 59
5.7 Maximum daily rainfall in each year over past 25 years 59
5.8 Maximum rainfall over different time interval over past 25 years 61
5.9 Storm Return Period for different scenarios 63
5.10 Results of IDF curve using Gumbel Distribution method 64
5.11 Naming and Length of pipes for analysis 67
5.12 Area under each pipe 69
5.13 Intensity computation for each catchment 78
5.14 Connecting pipe details 80
5.15 Main (MR) and Service (SR) Tile Drain diameter computation 85
5.16 Concrete Pipe Diameter computation 86
5.17 Dimensions of components provided 89
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW:
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges which that is usually dry. In the sense of
"flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are an area of study
of the discipline hydrology and are of significant concern in agriculture, civil engineering and
public health. Human changes to the environment often increase the intensity and frequency of
flooding, for example land use changes such as deforestation and removal of wetlands, changes in
waterway course such as with levees, and larger environmental issues such as climate change and
sea level rise.
Mumbai city has been prone to floods from many centuries now. There are evidences showing
that, the floods have hit the city, frequently in the past few decades. The resident of the city, has
felt the need of a system, which will serve for longer period of time, efficiently and effectively,
ensuring mitigation of floods. Huge money has been spent over this, but with no avail. Since, the
climate changes are not so promising, its need of the hour, to provide a sustainable solution to the
city, and we are here for the same.
1.2 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES:

Collecting the information and data regarding the flood such as annual rainfall data, areas
where flooding occurs every year, etc.
Understanding the problems created due to flooding and identifying the regions which are
affected by the flooding and also identifying the cause of flooding.
Utilizing best available data and science, continually improve understanding of the location
and potential impacts of flood hazards, the vulnerability of building types and community
development patterns, and the measures needed to protect life safety.
To reduce the vulnerability to flood hazards in order to protect the life, health, safety and
welfare of the community’s residents and visitors. Also to reduce the adverse impact on critical
facilities and infrastructure from flood hazard events within the region.
Increase our understanding and incorporate information about climate change including
potential increases in rainfall, glacial retreat and changes in sediment transport into flood hazard
management decision-making.
1
Consider the impacts of flood hazards in all planning processes that address current and
future land uses within the planning area. Evaluate the risks to public safety and existing
development e.g., critical facilities, infrastructure, and structures in flood hazard areas.
Considering the impacts that future development will have on the environment’s capacity
to withstand the impacts of flood events and the opportunities this development may create for
environmental restoration.
Creating a flood mitigation, diversion and storage system which can solve the flooding
problems in the region also eliminating disruption of any local government operations created due
to flooding and providing additional water, which would otherwise have flown away into the seas
for storage and consumption purposes.
A stable, adequate and publicly acceptable long term plan and solution should be
established and maintained so that whenever any chances of flooding appears, this system can
work effectively and efficiently.
Development of a flood mitigation, routing and storage plan where the flood water can be
transported to some nearby rivers, lakes and ponds.
1.3 PROSPECTED OUTCOMES:

 During rainy season the municipal corporation workers often keep the manhole covers
open for draining of flood water. Sometimes these manhole covers are not visible due to
flood water and person walking around falls into the sewer and loses life. So this big
problem of flooding can be solved.
 After implementing the flood mitigation and routing system plan the downpour situation
which was created by flood water gets solved after it gets diverted and transported to the
particular nearby rivers, lakes, and ponds.
 The clogging of drainage systems is also avoided.
 Sometimes traffic gets slow down because of flood water so this problem also gets solved.
 The vulnerability to floods will also get reduced so that it protects life, health and safety of
community’s residents.
 This also helps in maintaining, enhancing and restoring the natural environment's capacity
to deal with such kind of impacts created by flood hazard events.
 Due to the flooding situation the living of people in that flooded area makes very difficult
so this is also gets solved.
The flood water makes harm to the public properties, infrastructures, structures in that area so
this problem can also be solved.
2
1.4 SCOPE OF WORK:
Since floods are frequent events, which the mankind is exposed to, it becomes necessary to
understand the havoc created by floods, with its scale and try to come up with a solution, which
can work for a longer period. Since our work is based on the same, it’s essential to understand the
scope of work, with which, we are up to, and the same is mentioned below:
 Evaluating the impact created by inundations on property, life and environment. Also,
understanding the issues faced by people, regarding inundations.
 Access the factors responsible to cause these circumstances.
 Analyzing the present scenario with in detail, the inefficiency of the existing network.
 Review and appraisal of system developed in other parts of world, to address the floods,
with analyzing their technique of management.
 Evaluating its feasibility of implication, and the necessary changes to be made, regarding
to change in region’s ecology, environmental conditions and population.
 For a smaller stretch of city, developing a model which can sustain the city from floods.
Also, the water stored in the system, will be used during dry periods of the year.
 Determining the actual dimensions of the components of the system to be provided.
 Evaluating its implication on the city in terms of damage it can control, with respect to
property, life and environment, by presenting its feasibility.
 Suggesting alternative methods and measures to curb the bigger man-made disaster.
3
1.5 ORGANIZATION OF WORK:
INTRODUCTION:
This chapter includes the overview of the study, with its background and significance. The
chapter also includes the goals and objectives of the project along with its prospected outcomes.
LITEATURE REVIEW:
This chapter of the report entails the problems faced by the people in detail, with evidences/facts
supporting the same. This also includes the detailed analysis of the factors which are primarily
responsible for this scenario and detailed analysis of the existing storm water drainage system in
Mumbai, its inefficiency to curb the scenario and deficiencies existing in the same. It also includes
the current measures taken by the MCGM authorities to hinder its effects and its current status in
the city. This chapter also explains the need of a Sustainable Storm Water Storage System I the
city. It entails case study of
 China’s sponge city to restrain flooding and use this stored water for various purposes, to
get a better understanding of how the natural processes play an important role in
groundwater recharge and understanding their way towards inundations.
 Rotterdam’s Flood Management system to get a better clarity over their system and its
present status, in terms of minimizing the inundation effects.
 Japan’s Flood Control Systems, called G-Cans Project and Furukawa Reservoir Project to
restrain flooding by storing water in underground cisterns (silos), and then discharging
them at a time, once rainfall recedes.
METHODOLOGY:
The flowchart of the study has been mentioned in this chapter. Also, this chapter consists of
 Questionnaire: A set of questions were prepared taking into account all the aspects, which
floods may directly or indirectly impact on property, life and environment. A survey was
carried out using this questionnaire, to get people’s opinion on the same.
 Survey: 5 destinations has been selected as the places, where this survey will be carried
out. The results i.e. the responses obtained after the survey has been presented in a tabular
form for ease in analysis of the same.
4
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 PROBLEMS FACED BY PEOPLE:

As it pours heavily during monsoon, water starts accumulating and major public transportations
like bus and Local trains which is lifeline of Mumbai where rail tracks get submerged. Over many
low lying areas, water gets invaded into houses of residents and other exposed areas. Infrastructural
damages of roads, pre-existing structures and excess load on existing drainage systems. It also
causes long-term impacts, such as disruptions to supplies of clean water, wastewater treatment,
communication, education and health care. As most people are well aware, the immediate impacts
of flooding include loss of human life, damage to property and deterioration of health conditions
owing to waterborne diseases. Sometimes power failures also ravage the problem. Ultimately life
becomes standstill with many problems due to one devastating situation.
Disruption of public transports: Due to downpour, many rail tracks gets submerged under the
water resulting in delays or cancellations of local trains and long distance trains. In 2019, 3-4 times
local train services were stranded because of incessant rainfall more than 400 mm. People gets
stranded off or shift to some other mode of transports. BEST buses routes also remain diverged or
less frequent over some of the routes. Even highways come across huge traffic jams due to which
distresses occur on single mode of transport.
Infrastructure damages: Road conditions worsen which are subjected to heavy rains and
accumulated water regions. If sewage systems are not cleaned and desilted that cause drainage
problems and creates conducive situations for floods.
Health issues: Accumulated water and ponds cause various diseases like leptospirosis, malaria,
dengue and many other diseases spread across the community cause toll on health status.
Power failures: Sometimes switching stations confront more heavy rainfalls and water enters
into those areas lead to cause power outage in some areas.
Drowning situations: Many people have lost their lives by drowning into undrained water or
open exposed manholes. In heavy rains of 2019 around 32 people have lost their lives and in deluge
of 26th July 2005, more than 1000 fatalities were occurred. One report states that in period of 2005
to 2015, around 3000 people have lost their lives due to rain related incidents, as per sources from
Hindustan Times.
Economic slash down: Floods in period of 2005 to 2015, Mumbai has to bear loss of 14000
Crore Rupees collectively on various repercussions, as per sources from Money Control.
5
2.2 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE:
Mumbai’s various regions like King Circle, Hindmata, Santacruz, Andheri Subway, BKC
regions have always been prone to flooding whenever there’s a downpour. The people residing in
these areas and those who commute for their daily needs, are easily affected by these floods. It is
now an occasional occurrence of floods in these regions even there's a moderate downpour and it
does not feel that you are commuting in this region if you don't wade through knee-deep water
every once a while during the monsoon season. As an individual, when we think of reasons behind
this trend, we reckon that, it’s due to the region’s distinctive terrain and the presence of low lands,
construction of heavy structures, inefficient drainage system which creates this scenario. Are these
the explanations which is leading to these torrential rains or there are many other ones? Let us get
an insight into all the factors which are leading to these scenarios.
2.2.1 DIVERGENT TERRAIN AND GEOGRAPHY:

The city of Mumbai is formed of seven islands, which has few hilly areas and most of these
were razed off to merge them and form a large island. During the merging of these islands, the
portion near the coast of these individual ones, which are the low-lying portions formed due to
land reclamation during the British era in the 19th century, remained as low lying ones with respect
to the surrounding hilly areas. This made the regions like King Circle and Hindmata look like a
saucer shaped into which rain water comes from these hilly areas. In context of Hindmata, the rain
water comes from surrounding relatively high elevated areas like Parel, Lalbaug and Dadar. Also,
in the context of King Circle, the rain water comes from high hilly areas of Antop Hill, Sion Hill
into the region, eventually leading to standstill of water.
Source: Research paper on “The Exposure, Vulnerability, and Ability to Respond of Poor Households to Recurrent
Floods in Mumbai”
Fig 2.1: Mumbai’s Divergent Terrain & Geography
6
In short, the varying and discrete terrain of these regions has led to frequent floodings over the
years. The undulating topography of these regions and lower reduced level values (only 2-3 m
above sea level, as per article from the wire), has also added to this cause, making Mumbaikars
face these problems. Along with it, one of the major reasons is that, there has not been any aerial
photogrametric survey carried out, due to which, the details about the exact geography of these
regions is still unknown, which has always added to deficiencies while planning.
2.2.2 INCREASING RAINFALL IN THE REGION:

The increasing rainfall in the region has also been a cause of concern. The city of Mumbai has
been subjected to heavy rains, with the frequency of heavy rains occuring in a year increasing. In
2019, Mumbaikars had to endure five such extremely heavy rain days as against the norm of one
such event a year. With a total rainfall of 3670 mm, Mumbai witnessed the rainiest monsoon on
record in 2019, as per news outlet from the weather. The fury of monsoon is so intense that the
financial capital is slammed with more rains on a single day than what several parts of the country
receive in an entire year. The climate changes occurring in the region, has worsened the situation
and the future trend of the climate change is not so promising, pertaining to global warming and
rapidly increasing sea levels, changing wind patterns and periodic extreme as the record 2005
monsoon, when more than 500 were killed, is set to double by 2080, as per the news outlet from
The Weather.
The technology of weather forecasting has improved substantially since 2005 floods. However,
despite all the super-computing abilities and enhanced knowledge, we still struggle to accurately
predict such heavy rainfall episodes over a particular locality in time. Most models, across the
globe, forecast at spatial resolutions of around 10-20 km, making it difficult to predict whether a
small locality like King Circle or Hindmata will receive hefty rains, as per news outlet from The
Weather. With the rapidly changing climate, the scientific community warns us that it is not a
matter of ‘if’, but ‘when’ that such extremes repeat.
2.2.3 ENCROACHMENT OF LAND AND CONTAMINATION ALONG

NATURAL DRAINAGES:
Mumbai is lucky to have an ecological landscape that can naturally protect the city, provided
it is maintained. But, the rivers in Mumbai, which are natural stormwater drainage systems, are
in a poor state where they can no longer serve that function. One of the major rivers, Mithi, has
become a veritable sewer, choked with domestic and industrial waste and overflows every
monsoon. The other major rivers — Dahisar, Poisar and Oshiwara rivers — are also prone to
overflowing because of similar reasons. Due to encroachment of land along the banks of these
rivers, these are getting narrowed and wetted depth is also increasing, thanks to sludge
accumulation, overflow of water is taking place into the adjacent areas, leading to inundations.
7
Source: Google Fig 2.2: Land encroachment and Contamination along Natural
Drainages
2.2.4 DIMINISHING OF MANGROVES:
Destruction of mangroves and unplanned constructions are responsible for flooding in Mumbai
every year after heavy rains, say environment activists and town planners. Mangroves sequester
carbon, provide oxygen, clean the sewage, absorb heavy metals, provide breeding grounds for fish
and other biodiversity, and also protect the land from extreme climatic events and it also absorbs
excess water. Mangroves can reduce storm surge levels by up to half a meter for each kilometer of
mangrove forests that the storm surge passes through. Today, given the astronomical real estate
prices, the ever-growing population and the increasing scarcity of land, Mumbai has sacrificed its
ecology for the sake of development. As per an estimate by Vanashakti, the metro city has lost
40% of its mangrove forest cover between the early 1990s and 2005 putting communities at
risk. Using satellite images, the NGO has estimated that Mumbai’s mangrove cover is shrunk
by 15-20% in the last five years due to the dumping of debris and encroachment as per news
outlet from The Wire. These mangroves are now in severe decline, with clearly evident
consequences.
8
Source: Google Fig 2.3: Diminishing of Mangroves
2.2.5 INSUFFICIENT & INEFFICIENT DRAINAGE SYSTEM:
Mumbai has a drainage system, which in many places, is about 140 years old, consisting of
2,000 km of open drains, 440 km of closed drains, 186 outfalls and more than 30,000 water
entrances. The capacity of most of the drains is around 25 mm of rain per hour during low
tide, which is exceeded routinely during the monsoon season in Mumbai, which witness more than
1400 mm during June and July, as per sources from MitKat. The drain system works with the aid
of gravity, with no pumping stations to speed up the drainage, and was designed. Most of the storm
water drains are also choked due to the dumping of garbage by citizens, as they carry both the
sewage and storm water. Deposits from untreated effluents cause silt to precipitate to the bottom
of water bodies, reducing their volume and capacity. This is further compounded by the immense
volume of garbage produced by the city, which inevitably finds its way into storm water drains,
sewage lines and river systems such as that of the Mithi river, blocking them, and thereby, lowering
their efficacy. Portions of Mumbai like Mumbai Central and Tardeo remain below sea level.
Reclamation of ponds and obstructions in drains due to cables and gas pipe exacerbate the problem.
The Brihanmumbai Storm Water Drainage System (BRIMSTOWAD), project, presently under
development, is intended to be city’s long term roadmap to flooding. However, every year,
Mumbai records several days of heavy rainfall, exceeding 65 mm per hour, which means that even
the proposed enhanced drainage capacity of 50 mm per hour would not be able to accommodate
that volume, as per sources from MitKat.
9
2.2.6 CONCRETIZATION:
Mumbai, being a densely populated city, with population density, well over 35000/km^2, has
to provide shelter to these many people and in this process, land reclamation has been seen as the
lone option. Also, to sustain the movement of these people, along with the movement of heavy
vehicles, concretized roads (rigid pavement roads) are being constructed. Concrete being a very
low permeable material, with a percent air voids of 1-1.5% (as per IS-10262-2019), doesn’t allow
water to permeate through it and reach the ground water table, due to which, water gets stranded
on the road surface itself, eventually leading to floods. Concretization has affected groundwater
recharge in many areas and as a result, there is huge load on the inadequate drainage system, which
at times, is bursting out into inundations.
Source: Google Fig 2.4: Concretization of Roads
2.2.7 IMPROPER STORAGE OF RAINWATER:
Even the city receives such heavy rains, due to the absence of a proper storage system, the
rainwater is being mixed with sewage and is being disposed off directly into the Arabian Sea. This
is leading to water cuts during mid-summer phase in the city, upto 6-8% generally, with 10% water
cut seen since Nov-2018. In June 2019, the water stock in the seven lakes, which supplies water,
dipped to 6%, as per news outlet from The Wire. Had this water been stored, it wouldn’t led to
water cuts, but that doesn’t the case. This stark contrast, between extremes, flood and water
scarcity in the same state and parts of the same city, continues to expose the poor management
of water resources.
10
2.3 CASE STUDY OF MUMBAI’S EXISTING SWD SYSTEM:
Mumbai city receives seasonal rainfall for four months i.e. from June to September. Average
rainfall is 2,000 mm, of which 70 per cent is during July & August. Mumbai is lined on the west
by Arabian Sea and is intercepted by number of creeks (Mahim, Mahul and Thane creeks), rivers
(Mithi, Dahisar, Poisar and Oshiwara rivers, and their tributaries) and a complex nallah system.
The SWD system of Mumbai comprises a hierarchical network of roadside surface drains
(about 2,000 km mainly in the suburbs), underground drains and laterals (about 440 km in the
island city area), major and minor nallahs (200 km and 87 km respectively) and 186 outfalls,
which discharge all the surface runoff into rivers and the Arabian Sea.
Island Western Eastern
Sl. Drain Hierarchy / Type Suburbs Suburbs Total
City
1 Major Nallah (width >1.5m) 9 90 102 200
2 Minor Nallah (width <1.5m) 21 66 87
3 Arch/Box Drains 59 40 52 151
4 Roadside Open Drains 20 669 1,298 1,987
5 Closed Pipe 443 36 86 565
6 Total SWD length 531 857 1,603 2,991
7 No. of Water Entrances 27,893 609 1,706 30,208
Table 2.1 Summary of SWD system in Mumbai
Note: The above figures (for Sl. 1 to 6) are lengths in kilometers
Of the 186 outfalls, there are 107 major outfalls in city, which drain to Arabian Sea directly,
4 at Mahim creek and 4 at Mahul creek. There are 29 out-falls in western suburbs draining
directly into sea while 14 drain into Mithi river which ultimately joins Mahim creek. In eastern
suburbs 14 out-fall discharge in Thane creek while 6 discharge in Mahul creek.
Sr. Outfall In Western In Eastern
In Island City Area Total
No. Discharging into: Suburbs Suburbs
1 Arabian Sea 107 29 0 136
2 Mahim Creek 4 14 8 26
3 Mahul creek 4 0 6 10
4 Thane Creek 0 0 14 14
Total 115 43 28 186
Table 2.2 Summary of Outfalls system in Mumbai
The core of the present SWD system in city is about 140 year old, comprising of about 400
km of underground drains and laterals built on the basis of population and weather conditions.
This SWD system is capable of handling rain intensity of 25 mm per hour at low tide.
According to Environmentalist Debi Goenka, “At the time, when this system was designed, half
of the city’s area was green. The drainage system was designed considering that 50 per cent of
rainwater will be going through drains and the rest will percolate into the ground water. Now
very few parts in south Mumbai are open but the underground drainage system has remained the
same”. If the rain intensity is more than 25 mm per hour and high tide occurs, there is always a
possibility of water logging.
11
Since the discharge of all the storm water and treated sewage is into the Arabian Sea, tidal
variation has a major bearing in the system of storm water drainage (SWD) resulting in flooding
and water logging during heavy rains and recession of water during low tide.
The key reasons for the ineffectiveness of this system to reduce this impact are:
 Flat gradients
 Mud flats
 Inappropriate levels of outfalls
 Poor placement of gullies
 Loss of holding ponds due to land development over the years
 Increase in runoff coefficient
 Dilapidated drains
 Encroachment on drains
 Enhanced silting and choking of drains due to sullage/sewage inflows
 Garbage dumping in drains
 Obstruction due to crossing utility lines
 Poor structural conditions
And many more.
So, to curb this relentless issue, MCGM has tried to conduct several initiatives and activities,
like:
o Operates a control room - the Main Centre of Communication
o Discharge pumps – 196 nos. deployed to discharge water
o 6 Nos. search and rescue teams kept ready under the fire brigade
o 600 personnel from Civil Defence and 10 persons per ward from NGO
o 500 buses kept ready by the transport service provider
o De-silting of Mithi River-5.68 lakh m^3 silt removed pre-2007 and 3.70 lakhs m^3
thereafter
o 2652 residential and 1148 commercial structures removed.
o 1769 residential and 349 commercial structures rehabilitated
o Additional bridges at Kranti Nagar and Kurla-Kalina Road started.
o Permitting developers to cover stretches of nallahs near their properties at their own cost
based on in a manner that facilitates cleaning of the drains – this was intended to reduce
the amount of garbage getting into the SWD system.
o Instructing the Assistant Commissioner of each Ward to remove encroachment coming
within 5 meters from the nallah edges, wherever possible to provide access for desilting.
o Plugging connections/entry of sewage/sullage into the SWD system so as to ultimately
prevent discharge of silt and solid waste into the creeks/rivers/Arabian Sea. Wherever
such plugging is not possible, the MCGM is attempting pick-up of dry- weather flows
from the discharge points and pumping it into the sewerage system – as a pilot case,
MCGM proposes to tap the adulterated storm water at the discharge point of P. Balu
12
and Kirti College outfalls by gravity mains upto a new pumping position and to pump
the collected dry-weather flow into the regular sewerage system.
Source:
http://forestsclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/Addinfo/0_0_1112123912121BRIMSTOWADreportonStormWaterDrai
nage.pdf
Fig 2.5 Map showing location of outfalls in Greater Mumbai
These initiatives and activities, even when undertaken have not been able to pay off its efforts,
due to which, people are still facing the issues. Many factors/reasons are responsible for this
scenario. Some of them are:
 Negligence in maintenance of the existing SWD system
 Improper execution of plans
 Political interventions
 Lack of awareness of responsibilities of an individual
 Unable to think over long term solution and stressing over short term solutions
13
BRIMSTOWAD PROJECT:
The SWD system in the city is about 140 years old, which was designed for the rainfall intensity
of 25mm/hr at low tide and runoff coefficient of 0.5. But, from the above points, we understood
that, this system is insufficient to carry the rainwater, which is occurring at present. So, M.C.G.M
appointed M/s. Watson Hawskley International Pvt. Ltd with M/s A.I.C as Indian Associates to
survey the existing drains and identify the difficulties in its maintenance. They studied these in
detail and proposed a Master Plan for the augmentation of SWD system in year 1993, which is
popularly known as BRIMSTOWAD project. This was proposed taking into consideration design
rainfall intensity as 50mm/hr and runoff coefficient as 1, as they predicted that, the city, in its
development, will become more concretized and hence, the surface of concrete has runoff
coefficient(C) of 0.95, so they took C=1 for design.
Study Criteria and Methodology Adopted:

Hydraulic modelling has been based on the Wallrus programme developed by Hydraulics
Research of Britain. Many techniques were developed to ensure that, the models gave reliable
assessments of the hydraulic performance of the drains and were representatives of the hydraulic
conditions. In particular methods were developed to stimulate the discharge from the minor
discharge systems in the suburbs of which no data was available from the survey.
All models were run for varying lengths of storm and against differential tidal conditions to
establish the critical combination. Solutions were the found to avoid disruptive flooding against
this combination by testing modifications to the model.
The earlier design intensity of 25mm/hr, for one hour as the time of concentration of 1 hr, has
a frequency, of approximately 10 times per year. The Consultant surveyed the existing drains and
nallahs network by dividing it into 121 catchments, taking the inputs of design hydrograph of
different durations depending on the size and response of individual catchments and also accounts
for tidal variation at the discharge.
Return Duration in hours

Period 1 2 3 4 5
1 in 10 yrs 109.00 89.00 61.50 35.50 28.00
1 in 5 yrs 91.40 70.30 51.00 27.60 24.00
1 in 2 yrs 74.00 53.30 38.00 22.50 19.40
1 in 1 yrs 58.00 40.60 30.40 18.10 16.50
2 in 1 yrs 48.00 33.00 23.20 14.69 12.00
10 in yrs 25.00 17.00 12.00 07.60 05.90
Table 2.3 Storm Intensities for use in WALLRUS Model
(Average Intensities in mm/hour)
14
Current Status of BRIMSTOWAD Project:
These proposals were not taken up for implementation until the year 2007, mainly due to
paucity of funds. After the major flood event caused by extreme rainfall on 26 – 27 July 2005, the
Fact Finding Committee set up by the Government suggested updating the BRIMSTOWAD report
1993. The proposal recommended in the BRIMSTOWAD report was modified considering
recommendations of the Fact Finding Committee. Sanctioned values of BRIMSTOWAD project
works as per DPR 2007 are as follows: 1) City – INR 504.95 crores 2) Eastern Suburbs – INR
383.31 crores 3) Western suburbs – INR 312.37 crores Total – INR 1200.53 crores, say INR 1200
crores. The total work, consisting of 58 works was envisaged into 2 phases, Phase 1 and Phase 2,
in which construction of Storm Water Pumping stations (8 nos), widening, deepening, training of
nallahs, reconstruction, construction, remodeling, of nallahs, culverts, carrying out conditional
assessment of old arch/ box drains and rehabilitation of the same were to be carried out.
According to BMC reports, the cost of BRIMSTOWAD project was estimated to be Rs 1,200
crore in 2006, it has now crossed over Rs 4,000 crore. Also till date, out of the total 58 works, only
27 has been completed upto date. The reasons for the same are as follows:
 Cost estimates presented in DPR were based on 2004/ 2005 schedule of rates
 Change in scope of work due to actual site condition
 Cost escalation due to inflation
 New methodology for foundation of drains in marshy land/ tidal zones
 Impediments due to other ongoing developmental works and traffic congestion
 Time consumed in getting MoEF clearance
 NOC from various departments i.e. Railway, Airport, Traffic Authorities, Mumbai Port
trust etc.
 Diversion of utilities
 Lack of access road to sites due to existing slums on both sides of the nallah/ drain
 Delay in land acquisition Removal of encroachments
 Shifting of Project Affected Persons (PAPs).
Even after excess rainfalls, the city has to regularly face water cuts, and parts of Maharashtra
has to face severe droughts. Till now, we are only thinking about, rainwater and its effective
disposal into the sea. And if there’s a water cut, we think of water taken from seas and then filtering
it for drinking purpose, altering nature’s cycle. Instead, stress into developing effective storage
mechanism of rainwater is to be made, to ensure that, load on drainage system to carry rainwater
to the sea, will be reduced and hence, frequency of such calamities can be minimized.
15
2.4 NEED OF SUSTAINABLE STORM WATER STORAGE SYSTEM
(SSWSS):
Sustainability is defined as the process of people maintaining change in
a homeostasis balanced environment, in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of
investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are all in
harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations.
According to Our Common Future, sustainable development is defined as development that
"meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs."
The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable development goals,
such as economic development, social development, and environmental protection, which has been
expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating these three pillars of
sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing.
Source: Google Fig 2.6: Venn diagram showing Sustainable development Goals
Seeing the current situation in the city, it’s a very essential need to have a long term solution to
this issue, which can serve the city for a longer period of time, ensuring no damage to the
environment, so that ecology is preserved.
Till now, we are thinking about water being diverted towards sea. But, even after the city
receiving torrential rains, the city regularly faces water cuts, while the interior regions are facing
heavy droughts. It is now an essential need to stress towards storing this water, so that, the city
gets good supply, with excess water being diverted towards these regions, ensuring every drop of
water counts.
The long term solution implemented, should be such that, the residents and the commuters of
the city, are able to adapt the same, as this is for the public and they will have to use it wisely. It
should be well planned and execution has to better to ensure that, output obtained is up to the mark,
with better efficacy.
Also, there's a great need to spread awareness among the people about their individual
responsibilities and duties.
16
2.5 CASE STUDY OF SPONGE CITY CONCEPT OF CHINA:
Various problems such as urban flood inundation and water shortage occurred in China during
the rapid urbanization in the last several decades. The Ministry of Water Resources (MWR) of
China stated that there are more than 400 cities having the shortage of water supply and 110 cities
having severe water shortage situation. With increased impervious areas and converted/ occupied
forests, grass lands, lakes, and wetlands, natural water cycle has broken. When it rains, most of
stormwater runoff is discharged out of the city. This is accompanied by more frequent occurrences
of urban stormwater management obstacles such as stormwater runoff pollution, water resource
shortage, higher possibility of flooding and more. The urban flooding has led to loss of lives and
property. A severe storm which occurred in Beijing on July 21 2012 has caused 79 deaths and the
loss of property was estimated to be around 11.84 billion Yuan (1.81 billion US Dollar). The
situation of the control of local flooding in cities is more severe than any time in the history of
China due to the fastest urban sprawl.
An urban water management program called Sponge City (SPC) had been put forward in China
in 2014 in order to relieve the flood inundation and water shortage situation. The SPC program
implements not only the concept and practices of low impact development but also various
comprehensive urban water management strategies and promotes water security, water
environmental protection, and water ecological restoration. In the start stage, in March 2015, the
Chinese government has selected 16 cities in 1st phase, where this concept was first to be
implemented, with the government providing special subsidy and assistance for the development
in the next 3 years. Since all the 16 cities has different geographical locations, the SPC plan and
its implementation was different in different cities. The new SPC construction aims to relieve
cities’ water shortage situation to avoid the forest, lake, wetland occupation and breaking the
natural water cycle. The stormwater could be reused through the construction of natural storage,
natural infiltration and natural depuration facilities during the SPC construction.
2.5.1 BACKGROUND RESEARCH:

The research was based with focus emphasized on the concepts of Low Impact Development
(LID), Sustainable Urban Water Drainage System (SUWDS). The concept, even though was
developed in just 2-3 years, had underwent many basic research and demonstration projects. The
research topics on which the detailed study was carried out by many researchers were:
 LID for urban stormwater flood control.
 Stormwater management using green building.
 The introduction, application and design method of the bio-retention facility for stormwater
management.
 Pollutant removal efficiency of Rain gardens and problems in its application.

 Operation and maintenance of grassed swales.
 Depressed greenbelt design method, with its stormwater runoff capture efficiency.
17
 Combined sewer outflow pollution source analysis using chemical mass balance method
and its control
 Multi-function detention facility, with stormwater detention tank performance evaluation.
Source: “Case studies of the Sponge City Program in China” by Xiaoning Li, Junqi Li, Xing Fang, Yongwei Gong,
Wenliang Wang.
Fig 2.7 China’s Sponge City Concept

After conducting many researches, they understood that the combination of source control,
green infrastructure and water sensitive urban design system is the only way to relieve urban
flooding inundation, urban runoff pollution and promote urban water environment. On Dec 12
2013, “Sponge City” concept was put forward in central urbanization conference and was accepted
by President Xi Jinping and gradually, by the public.
18
2.5.2 CONCEPT OF SPONGE CITY:
The SPC concept indicates that a city could be functioned as a sponge that has great resilience
to environmental changes and natural disasters and promotes sustainable city construction and
development, which has sustainable ecological function. The optimal goals of the SPC is that the
stormwater generated from rainfall events could be absorbed, stored, infiltrated and cleaned with
the natural and/or manmade facilities and the rainfall and stormwater could be transformed into
water resource that could be utilized during the drought. The SPC development is to change
traditional thinking and approach to quickly discharge the stormwater runoff to avoid flooding and
inundation but capture and utilize stormwater to the maximum extent as possible.
Generally speaking, the SPC concept can be summarized or represented by six words–infiltrate,
detention, store, clean, utilize, and discharge. The SPC concept is similar to some stormwater
management concepts in developed countries such as LID, Green Infrastructure (GI), and WSUD
in a large extent. Almost all of these concepts are targeted to water resource sustainability, keeping
continuous and healthy water cycles, prevention and control of flooding inundation and water
pollution, ecological friendly environment and so on. In fact, the development of LID systems and
facilities is an important pathway of the SPC construction program.
The construction of SPC typically includes three parts: urban natural ecological protection,
ecological restoration, and LID system construction. Urban natural ecological protection means to
preserve the natural forests, green spaces or lands, rivers, lakes, wetlands, ponds, trenches and so
on in the largest extent as undeveloped as possible, and this is considered as the basic requirement
of SPC construction. Ecological restoration means to repair the destroyed and impaired ecological
systems during the urbanization process with ecological techniques to rouse the ecological
function of these destroyed systems. LID system construction means to minimize the destruction
to environment due to urbanization based on the LID concept by limiting the impervious areas in
the city, preserving adequate areas as ecological land use, and increasing stormwater storage,
infiltration, and cleaning.
The SPC program includes source control LID system, urban drainage system, and emergency
discharge system. The source control LID system can implement in many different small areas of
a city to reduce runoff volume, peak discharge and pollutant concentration when these LID
facilities can infiltrate, store, detention, transport and purify or lean the stormwater runoff. Urban
drainage system is to take the responsibility of stormwater runoff gathering, transport and
discharge. Emergency discharge system is used to deal with the extra runoff that could not be
discharged by urban drainage system under the extreme storm events. The emergency discharge
system may include the natural water bodies (lakes or reservoirs), multiple function detention
ponds, spillways, stormwater tunnels, etc. These three systems are not independent of each other
but they can be integrated to work together for comprehensive urban stormwater management.
Therefore, these three systems are supplement to each other and important components of the SPC
construction and development.
2.5.3 IMPLEMENTATION:
As mentioned earlier, the 16 cities mentioned in phase 1 were: Qian’an, Baicheng, Zhenjiang,
Jiaxing, Chizhou, Xiamen, Pingxiang, Jinan, Wuhan, Changdu, Hebi, Nanning, Chongqing,
Suining, Gui’an New District and Xixian New District. Chinese government offered a central
government special subsidy of 600 million Yuan (for provincial capital city), or 500 million Yuan
(for Municipality directly under the Central government), or 400 million Yuan (for other cities).
In the meanwhile, the subsidy policy also stated that, the pilot city could be awarded extra 10% of
19
the basic subsidy fund for good performance of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) mode
popularization. The Chinese MOF published the Government Procurement Management Method
of PPP Program on December 31, 2014, which had two purposes. The first purpose is to attract
more private investment and popularize the PPP mode in the SPC construction; the second purpose
is to formalize the government procurement manner in the PPP program.
The MOHURD (Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development), had published a
technical document called “Guide of Sponge City Construction Technology-LID Technique
(Experiment)” on Nov 2 2014, to ensure the SPC program makes good progress after it had
launched in China. The MOHURD also published the Evaluation and Assessment Index of Sponge
City Construction Performance (Experiment) on July 10, 2015 which explained the evaluation
indexes and methods of the SPC construction program from 6 aspects including water ecology,
water environment, water resource, water security, policy system formulation and execution, and
construction process.
2.5.4 ADVANTAGES:
 Improves overall water quality
 Rainwater is captured and can be reused
 Reduces chances of flooding
 Reduces the railway problems
 Reduces urban heat island intensity
2.5.5 CONCLUSION:
The SPC program is of great necessary for solving the challenging problems of stormwater
management occurred in China during the urbanization process. It is launched and popularized by
the central government agencies of MOF (Ministry of Finance), MOHURD and MWR (Ministry
of Water Resources) jointly, which shows the Chinese government put it in a great importance.
The SPC concept is a complex concept that not only includes urban flooding inundation control
and water utilization but also relates to water environment protection and water ecology restoration
even though it was originally developed from the LID concept. Another innovation of the SPC
program is the application of PPP mode which aims to attract more non-governmental investment
to the building, operation and management process of urban stormwater infrastructures. The
infrastructure construction process may could become another economic development engine in
the next decades in China. There is still a long way to go for the SPC construction and development
in China, but a very brilliant future of the SPC program is ahead of us.
20
2.6 CASE STUDY OF FLOOD MANAGEMENT IN ROTTERDAM
Many large coastal cities are located in deltas. The proximity to rivers and sea, generally low
ground elevations and land subsidence makes them vulnerable to floods (de Moel et al. 2011;
Nicholls et al.2008). The main increase in flood damages experienced so far, is due to the increase
of people and industries in the floodplain, combined with an increase in property values (Dawson
et al. 2011; Nicholls et al. 2008; Maaskant et al. 2009). This trend is expected to continue; in 2007
half of the world population lived in cities and the number of people living in cities is increasing
(UN-Habitat 2008). In addition, the magnitude and frequency of flooding in many river basins and
delta’s is expected to increase further due to climate change and associated sea-level rise (IPCC
2007). For example, higher peak discharges are expected for the river Rhine in North Western
Europe (Hooijer et al. 2004; Te Linde et al. 2010).
It is recognized that the use of structural measures alone, such as levees, is not sufficient as
there is always a chance they can fail, while consequences of flooding are increasing because of
population growth and economic growth in the floodplains (van Herk et al. 2011; de Moel et al.
2011). Therefore, recent research advocates the implementation of additional measures in flood
risk management combining both structural and non-structural measures (Aerts and Botzen 2011;
Bubeck et al. 2012a; Dawson et al. 2011; Evans et al. 2004; Schelfaut et al. 2011; Stephenson
2002; Wheater and Evans 2009; Begum et al. 2007; de Moel et al. 2011). Several studies have
shown the effectiveness of adaptive, non-structural measures in reducing flood damages and
increasing the adaptive capacity, e.g. (Botzen et al. 2013; Dawson et al. 2011; Kreibich et al. 2011;
Bubeck et al. 2012b; de Moel et al. 2013). Some even advocate that adaptive measures are more
sustainable than structural, as they are more flexible, less committing and do not exclude options
for future generations (Kundzewicz 2002).
Rotterdam contains relatively large unembanked areas in the port area, most of which have
been elevated when they were first developed. The newest parts of the harbour of Rotterdam,
developed in 2008-2013, are elevated to 5 meters above main sea level. Some of the oldest harbour
areas are located in the city centre and were only elevated to about 2.5-3 meters above main sea
level, which causes regular flooding on the quays (see figure). Currently, 4.10 meters above main
sea level is advised for new developments (van Veelen 2012). Flood frequencies in the case study
area range from 1:10 years on the quays tot 1:10,000 years in the higher parts. The last time that
large parts of the unembanked areas were flooded was in 1953. Smaller parts, mainly located on
the quays, do flood more often, recently in December 2011.
21
Source: Case study on Adaptation to climate change in urban water management – flood management in the
Rotterdam Rijnmond Area
Fig 2.8: Flooding of low lying quays of the Noordereiland in Rotterdam on Dec 9,
2011
Source: Case study on Adaptation to climate change in urban water management – flood management in the
Rotterdam Rijnmond Area
Fig 2.9: Placeholders for demountable barriers in front of basement windows in the
city of Kampen
22
Fig 2.10: Placeholder for demountable barriers (in the pillar, fence will be replaced
by wooden boards) at the riverside quay in Kampen. In the pavement a hidden
piston embankment can be seen
In several places in the Netherlands experiments have been held with floating buildings.
Rotterdam has a floating pavilion and plans for a floating neighborhood in the same harbour.
Amsterdam already has a small neighborhood of floating houses.
The project started with developing a long list of potential adaptive measures that could be
applied to decrease flood damages, in both existing residential areas as well as in new
developments. This long list of measures was used to develop a toolbox, built as a matrix consisting
of nine categories of measures (embanking, elevating, dry-proofing, wet-proofing, temporal
adaptation, floating, evacuation, regulations, communication) and four different scales on which
they can be implemented: building, building block, neighborhood and city district. Measures will
be implemented differently and at different scales. For example, a single building can be wet
proofed, but also all the entire public space in the neighborhood. Evacuation can be done within a
building (Towards higher floors), within unembanked areas (to higher places or a flood proof
shelter) or to embanked areas. It depends on local characteristics which option is most viable.
Fig 2.11: Floating pavilion in Rijnhaven in Rotterdam
23
Building Type Building Block Neighborhood City District
Embankments Embankment Embankment (secondary)
around building around Embankment
block neighborhood around
unembanked
area
Elevating Elevating Elevated Elevating
building building block neighborhood,
including
infrastructure
Dry-proofing Dry-proofed Dry-proofed Dry-proofed
building outside walls to outside walls as
protect building part of
block embankment
around
neighborhood
Wet-proofing Wet-proofed Wet-proofed Wet-proofed Flood proof
garden and quays public space public space
building
Adapting Temporary Temporary Temporary
adaptations to closing open protection of
buildings spaces in neighborhood
building blocks
Floating Floating Floating Floating
building building block neighborhood
Evacuation Evacuation Evacuation to Evacuation to
within building higher grounds embanked areas
in unembanked
areas
Regulations Building codes Zoning within Zoning within
and regulations unembanked unembanked
for use areas areas
Communication Personal Large scale
Communication communication
on flood risk and and risk maps
evaluation
Dry-proofing: Preventing flood water from entering a building by making reinforcing walls,
windows and doors and making them impermeable.
Wet-proofing: Flood water is allowed to flow in the building. The building is built with
materials that are not damaged by flood water and easy to clean.
Table 2.4 Toolbox of adaptive measures studied in Feijenoord, Rotterdam case study
24
Although there still are several problems and barriers to be solved, there are also positive
Trends seen, which are as follows:
1. There is an increasing attention to other flood measures than embankments in the
Netherlands. Recently, more attention is given to the area behind the dykes. A three
‘layer’ approach is studied in which the first layer is formed by prevention (structural
methods). The second layer is formed by smart spatial planning and building codes in the
embanked areas, reducing the impact when a flood occurs. The third layer is formed by
evacuation and preparedness strategies. It is mainly focused on minimizing casualties.
The layer approach is, however, not yet implemented in regulations.
2. A consortium of construction companies has developed a set of norms for floating
buildings, based on the national building codes. This could be a first step for including
floating buildings in the national building codes.
3. In 2012, new national building codes came into force. It gives the possibility to demand
reinforced walls in buildings that will be built near railroads used for the transportation
of hazardous goods. This gives good hopes for a similar option for dry-proofing norms in
unembanked areas.
4. There is an increasing experience with floating buildings (e.g. IJburg – Amsterdam and
plans in Rotterdam).
There is an increasing experience with adaptive building (e.g. Hamburg, Stadswerven -Dordrecht).
Several research projects have worked on adaptive flood management for the Netherlands (e.g.
Climate changes spatial planning and Urban Flood Management).
25
2.7 CASE STUDY ON JAPAN’S FLOOD CONTROL SYSTEM:
Tokyo, and the rest of Japan, has a long history of devastating and deadly floods. A storm in
1910 destroyed 4.2% of the nation’s GDP. And storms throughout the 20th century left the rapidly
urbanizing nation’s cities and towns underwater. With around 30 percent of Tokyo’s population
living below sea level, mostly along Tokyo Bay or the many rivers that feed into it, the metropolis
has had a long history of disastrous flooding. Starting in the 1920s, Japan began building water
channels and an extensive set of levies. But storm after storm and flood after flood proved that the
system was not enough. Japan’s Meteorological Agency says the number of typhoons a year that
threaten Tokyo has jumped 1.5 times in the last four decades. After a particularly deadly stream
of six floods in the 1980s left tens of thousands of homes in the capital city damaged, national
leaders decided Tokyo needed special attention. As the capital city grew and Japan prospered,
protecting the world’s largest metropolitan economy and its inhabitants -over 13 million in Tokyo
today and more than 36 million in the greater metropolitan area - became a national priority.
So, to protect the city from floods, till now, Tokyo has implemented two major projects, which
are considered as the city’s lifeline: 1) Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel,
also called G-Cans Project and 2) Furukawa Underground Regulating Reservoir, also called
Furukawa Reservoir Project.
2.7.1 G-CANS PROJECT:
Due to devastating floods, with which the city were hit, the man-made problem of settling a
huge population in a flood-prone environment had to be addressed using a technological solution.
Thus, in 1992, construction of the "Outer Underground Discharge Channel" was launched, with
the construction starting in 1993. Completed in 2006, the G-Cans gathers the overflowing
floodwater from rivers in Tokyo, such as Oochi Kotone, Kuramatsu, Nagakawa and Arakawa, and
drains it into the Edogawa (also called Edo) River.
CONCEPT OF G-CANS CONSTRUCTION:

The concept was relatively simple. The plan connected existing rivers and waterways to
overflow pipes and drains. This allowed the above ground drainage system in central Tokyo to
continue in operation, while its overall capacity was massively expanded underground.
The G-Cans project starts at Showa in Tokyo and extends 6.4km towards Kasukabe in Saitama.
The Saitama region, where the Edogawa River is located, is at the centre of the Kanto Plain in
Japan. It is 20m above sea level. The Edogawa splits from the Tone River which passes through
several cities before draining its water into Tokyo Bay.
COMPONENTS INVOLVED:
 The project includes five huge silos, a 6.5km connecting tunnel, a storage tank and 78
pumps.
 The five concrete containment silos are 65m deep and 32m in diameter. They are located
within certain limits from the rivers. The five silos act as flow regulators.
 The silos are connected to a 10.6m diameter tunnel. The tunnel is constructed 50m
underground, passing through the silos. The tunnels allow the silos to provide capacity
26
support to each other. The tunnel sends the water to the storage tank when the silos reach
their capacity.
Source: https://web-japan.org/trends/11_tech-life/tec130312.html
Fig 2.12: Mechanism of G-Cans Project

 The water storage tank, popularly called the Underground Temple, is 25.4m high and 177m
long. It is supported by 59 pillars which are 20m tall and weigh 500t.
 The tank is connected to 14,000hp turbines and 78 pumps. The turbines are capable of
pumping 200t of water a second and draining it into the Edogawa River, further draining
into Tokyo bay, once the huge rainfall is over and the situation reverts into normal. The
turbines are powered by jets similar to those used on a Boeing 737 airplane.
 There is a control room within the tunnel and the storage tank. The pressurized nature of
the tank allows the system to regulate in case one of the turbines breaks down.
 The facility remains dry during the dry seasons and serves as a tourist spot.
 The tunnel can be accessed through staircases fixed to the silos.
 The tunnel was bored using the shield method in order to avoid distortions due to its depth.
The work included excavation, construction of lining and muck transportation.
 The vast diameter of the tunnel also necessitated the application of a closed type slurry
shield method.
 Modern technologies were applied for the secondary lining of the tunnel to cut the cost of
construction.
 Water-tightness is maintained within the tunnel with the help of internal water pressure
reacting type segments.
 The massive drainage system is run through a state-of-the-art control center.
27
CONCLUSIONS AND NEED OF ANOTHER SYSTEM:
 Six construction firms worked on these tunnels, in the process developing new digging and
tunnel wall building methods that are now the international standard.
 At the cost of about $3 billion US dollars, the on the G-Cans Project was completed in
2006.
 It can be hard to measure the impact of a preventative measure, because, by its nature, it
prevents a damaging event from happening. By some estimates, the G-Can flood control
system has cut flood damage in half and has reduced property damage by 90%.
 The construction’s byproducts have even been put to good use.
 New levies have been built up around flood prone rivers using the earth excavated to build
the enormous underground system.
Tokyo and the surrounding area are much safer. The risk to homes, businesses and public
services has reduced significantly. Making the area safer has encouraged more growth and even
more urban sprawl. This is creating new problems. Super levees designed to create public walking
areas and shopping centers have played a part in new developments moving into areas that are
historically flood prone. It seems the system designed to protect Tokyo from floods has been so
successful it is encouraging growth into danger areas still relatively unprotected. In 2008, due to
localized downpours, Japanese urban planners recognized that increased urban sprawl required a
flood control solution beyond the G-Cans. The Furukawa Reservoir would utilize old and new
concepts to protect the fast growing metropolis.
2.7.2 FURUKAWA UNDERGROUND REGULATING RESERVOIR:

The Furukawa Underground Regulating Reservoir is the latest addition to Tokyo’s network of
underground water-storage facilities. The Furukawa River winds through Tokyo’s Shibuya and
Minato wards, which are some of the city’s most densely packed neighborhoods, according to the
government.
Similar to the above ground discharge waterways, the system would focus on moving water
from flood areas into rivers that could carry the water to the ocean. Due to space constraints, the
reservoir has been built 15.24 meters directly underneath the course of the river, which often makes
acute turns, complicating the project’s construction. Instead of giant cisterns, the system would
use 3.3 kilometers of 7.5 meter diameter tunnels. Unlike the G-Cans, the Furukawa reservoir is
fully underground. The full capacity of the Furukawa Reservoir is expected to surpass 135,000
cubic meters of water, about the equivalent of 54 Olympic-size swimming pools.
Source: Bloomberg
Fig 2.13: Furukawa Underground Regulating Reservoir under Construction
28
2.7.3 CONCLUSION ON JAPAN’S FLOOD CONTROL SYSTEM:
Systems like the Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel and the Furukawa
Underground Regulating Reservoir have dramatically reduced the flooding and damage caused by
heavy rainstorms. As Tokyo continues to adapt to changing weather patterns, it is likely that these
systems will continue to play a key role in protecting the city for many years to come.
While the cost of these systems may not be reasonable for most countries, the concepts and
lessons learned will be essential in a more and more urban world facing increasing threats from
climate change.
29
2.8 CASE STUDY ON SUSTAINABLE UNDERGROUND WATER
DRAINAGE SYSTEM FOR MUMBAI CITY:
This study was done by students of Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology, Pimpri. The
proposed study consisting of the assessment of flood in Mumbai, identification of flood prone
areas in Mumbai including two visits. From the suggested measures work on provision of
Underground Drainage system for flooded area and analysis of floods and design of underground
system was done using Q-GIS tool. Assessment of flood in Mumbai Assessment of flood was done
through the two site visit to Mumbai city. Identification of flood prone areas in Mumbai (Hindmata
to Parel ) From the assessment of various floods areas in Mumbai such as Mumbai central,
Hindmata ,Dadar TT, King Circle, Juhu, Tara Road, SV road, Parel, Santacruz etc. and found that,
Parel and Hindmata, were the most affected. The reason for selecting Parel and Hindmata as the
maximum flood prone area. On the basis of low lying area. Due to low lying area the water from
higher elevation get enter into these region and maximum flood occurs. For these areas suggested
an underground drainage system was developed which is as shown in fig below:
Source: Case study on Sustainable Underground Water Drainage System for Mumbai City
Fig 2.14 Study area showing Hindmata to Parel, Mumbai
To find flood prone area there was need to use QGIS software. By using, Hazen-Williams
formula, overall dimension of interconnecting silos and pipes was obtained. Analysis of flood
prone area was done using Q-GIS. Figure 2.14 shows the measured flood prone area using QGIS
tool. The flood prone area shown in the figure is from Hindmata to Parel which measures area
6.539X104 m2.
DATA:
1) Average annual Rainfall- 2400mm
2) Flood prone area- 6.539 X 104 m2
Now, by using Darcy law, Q=C*I*A
Where, Q = Total annual rainfall in m3
K = Coefficient of runoff = 1 ……For urban area
A=Area in m2, I=Average annual rainfall in mm
Now, Q = C*I*A
= 1 X 2400 X10-3 X 6.593 X 104 = 158232 m3 /year = 18.06 m3 /hr
30
Source: Case study on Sustainable Underground Water Drainage System for Mumbai City
Fig 2.15 Flood Prone Study Area (Using Q-GIS Software)

Now, velocity of flow is calculated by using Hazen-Williams Equation as
V= 0.85 * C * R0.63 * S0.54
Where C = coefficient of roughness = 140 (for concrete)
R = Hydraulic Radius
S = Slope
18.06 = (π/4) * D2 * 0.85 * C * R0.63 * S0.54
Therefore, D = 0.5m
Design of Silos:
Provision of 3 silos in 1 km length at a distance of 500m Results for underground silos and
interconnecting pipes are mentioned further.
So, Diameter of Silo (D) = 10m and Height of Silo (H) = 5m
CONCLUSION:
After studying the literature review and methodology and looking over the topographical
condition of Mumbai we are planning to suggest a solution of Underground drainage system. To
provide underground drainage system consisting of 3 silos at 500m distance for a stretch of 1km
silos of 10m diameter, 5m height and interconnecting pipe of 0.5m. This stored flood water from
silos can be treated and convey to the water scarcity area in Mumbai.
31
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 FLOWCHART OF WORK:
This portion of the report, explains the process with which work will be carried out in the form
of a flowchart and the same is mentioned below. This is just a representation, indicating the flow
of work, with the exact details, found in the table of contents.
Project Description
Emphasizing the issue
Understanding problems faced by people
Assessing factors responsible
Evaluating the present system & its insufficiency
Emphasizing the need of SSWSS
Reviewing the case studies of similar concepts
Form an opinion of problems faced by people through survey
Developing a model based on SSWSS
Determining the dimensions of individual components
Assessing its suitability, in terms of performance, feasibility, cost implications
Suggesting alternative measures to curb inundations 32

3.2 SCOPING:
3.2.1 SURVEY:
To identify the problems faced by the residents of the city due to frequent floods, a survey was
being carried out from ______________
Parel to ______________.
Sion The places covered during this
survey were chosen, keeping in mind the impact inundations had in these regions over the years.
The places covered were basically 5 regions: King Circle, Matunga, Dadar, Hindmata & Parel.
3.2.2 QUESTIONAIRE:
A questionnaire was being prepared taking into account all the aspects, which floods may
directly or indirectly impact on property, life and environment. A sample of the questionnaire is
as follows:
QUESTIONNAIRE
@ KING CIRCLE, MATUNGA, DADAR, HINDMATA & PAREL
1. You witness frequent floods in areas like King Circle/ Matunga / Dadar/ Hindmata/ Parel.
a. Completely agree b. Partially agree c. Neutral d. Partially disagree e. Completely
disagree
2. After floods, water gets entered into your homes.

disagree
3. You have to come across water logging due to continuous rains .

disagree
4. You have to face the issue of disruption/delay in public transports like local trains and
BEST buses.
disagree
5. Power failures are caused due to heavy rains.

disagree
6. Flood like situations in your proximity hampers your day to day life activities.
disagree
33
7. Essentials and basic needs get difficult to fulfil during heavy rains.
disagree
8. There are some open exposed manholes in these areas.

disagree
9. You have witnessed property damage in your locality, during floods .

disagree
10. Solid waste materials (like plastic bottles, polythene bags, leaves, etc.) floats over
accumulated water and chokes the drains.
disagree
11. It takes a little longer time for complete drain of accumulated water.
disagree
12. How many hours a day do you receive water supply at your home?
a. 1-3 hrs a day b. 3-8 hrs a day c. more than 8 hrs a day
13. Even though due to heavy rains and inundations you face water shortage issue in the
months of March/April/May.
disagree
14. During heavy rains, you have witnessed issues like water pipe getting bursted and water
coming out of it, due to which, water supply got cut .
disagree
15. You and your neighborhood people have to go through infectious epidemic diseases due
to accumulated rains and poor hygienic conditions.
disagree
16. Which of the following diseases that you and your family had been exposed to?
a. Leptospirosis b. Typhoid c. Fever d. Cholera e. Malaria f. Dengue g. None of the
above h. If others, please specify……………..
34
17. You have witnessed accidents or deaths due to floods and accumulated water over the
roads.
disagree
18. Civic authorities regularly carry out drainage recovery processes in your locality before
or during floods.
disagree
19. Existing systems are working fair enough to curb water drainage and storage
requirements.
disagree
20. We need upgradation in our old systems for water storage and drainage.
disagree
21. Local business owners and small scale firms have to bear with the problems due to
frequent floods.
disagree
22. There are enough natural ponds, water storage systems and natural soil reserves in your
area.
disagree
23. Mumbai city will not be able to maneuver with problems like floods and water scarcity
issues.
disagree
35
CHAPTER 4
MODEL
To overcome this inundation issues, we have come up with a storage model, which is
responsible in storing this inundated water, helping the region during dry periods. Our model
works on the concept of tile drain system. Let us first understand about the concept of tile drain
system, before getting into the insights of our model.
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO TILE DRAIN SYSTEM:

Drain tile is essentially a network of porous pipes that run alongside your foundation.
These pipes are in place to encourage water to drain away from the foundation and into the network
of pipes, instead of seeping through cracks and causing issues in your basement itself. The pipes
run through a network that leads to a sump pump to drive the water away, or they go through a
downward sloping drain system that leads away from your home to the surface where the water
can safely drain away.
A drain tile system is a type of drainage system which ensures that your basement or crawl
space cannot be flooded by ground water. This system ensures that in periods of heavy rain or
snow, your basement and/or crawl space cannot be flooded, which also means you avoid expensive
damage to these areas of your home. In agriculture, tile drainage is a type of drainage system that
removes excess water from soil below its surface. While surface water can be drained by pumping,
open ditches, or both, tile drainage is often the most prudent practice for draining subsurface water.
The phrase "tile drainage" derives from its original composition from tiles of fired clay, i. e.,
ceramic, which were similar to terracotta pipes yet not always shaped as pipes. In the 19th century
a "C" shaped channel tile commonly was placed like an arch atop a flat tile, denominated the "mug"
and "sole", respectively. Today, tile drainage is any variation of this original system that functions
in the same mode. Commonly HDPE and PVC tubing denominated "tile line" is used, although
precast concrete and ceramic tiles are still used.
Tile drainage can transform poorly drained fields, facilitating timely planting in wet springs,
increasing rooting depth, and dramatically increasing crop yields. The ability to raise and lower
the water table enables the grower to respond to crop needs and reduce the amount of nitrate and
phosphate that escape from fields.
In the U.S., farmers have been installing underground (subsurface) drainage pipes beneath
poorly drained agricultural land since the late 1800s. Originally made of clay tile, most of today’s
drainage systems utilize perforated plastic pipes installed three to five feet below the soil surface.
Tile drainage is employed in many parts of the U.S. and Canada but it is particularly prevalent in
the U.S. Midwest where an estimated one-third of agricultural land is tiled.
36
Source: Google
Fig 4.1 Tile Drain System

In the U.S., farmers have been installing underground (subsurface) drainage pipes beneath
poorly drained agricultural land since the late 1800s. Originally made of clay tile, most of today’s
drainage systems utilize perforated plastic pipes installed three to five feet below the soil surface.
Tile drainage is employed in many parts of the U.S. and Canada but it is particularly prevalent in
the U.S. Midwest where an estimated one-third of agricultural land is tiled.
The goal of a drainage system depends on the characteristics of the area in which it’s installed.
For most farmers, though, drainage allows field access for planting or cultivation equipment earlier
in the growing season and during wet periods. It also improves soil aeration and, as a result,
increases crop production where excessive moisture at certain times of the year is a production-
limiting factor. The interest in tile drainage has increased in many areas as computer yield monitors
on modern combines indicate greater yields in tiled areas and as land values and commodity prices
have increased.
“The key is that when you manage drainage, you tend to drain less water from the field and less
water leaving the field means less amount of nitrate as well,” says Dan Jaynes, a soil scientist with
the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), the chief scientific research agency of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture. “Traditionally, we put the pipe into the ground and never touched it.
Now, we’re learning to manage drainage to benefit both the crop and surface water quality. Tile
drainage management is an example of how agriculture can synchronize productivity and
economic demands while responding to environmental concerns.
37
4.2 OUR MODEL:
Our model works on Tile Drain system concept, which looks as shown in the below figure. We
are trying to implement this concept at flooding region or flood prone zones in Mumbai. The details
of each and individual component along with material provided, dimensions of each
part/component are shown in the below sections.
Source: 3D model drawn on Sketchup software

Fig 4.2 Model
4.2.1 SERVICE TILE DRAIN:
Service Tile Drain system which are to be provided at the intersection of end of roadway and
start of footpath, and running parallel to the road length, have further sub-components as shown
below:
CONCRETE ASSEMBLY:
It is provided along the vertical edges of the service tile drain. The primary purpose of this
assembly is to hold the system along the edges and to provide support and stability. It also helps
in easy laying of service tile drain pipes, vertical pipes and perforated concrete layer. The thickness
of this assembly is assumed to be around 30 mm. The height and length of this assembly will
depend on the requirement at the site.
PRECAST PERFORATED CONCRETE LAYER:
This is provided at the top as shown in the above figure. This layer is placed above the concrete
assembly, on the two side sections of the concrete assembly. It contains perforations, through
which, vertical pipes can be easily laid. The diameter of perforations to be provided is 20mm and
centre to centre distance between perforations is to be 50mm. The height of this precast concrete
layer is to be around 200mm and its length will be equal to the length of service tile drain pipe
provided.
38
Fig 4.3 Service Tile Drain Assembly
MESH / NET:
High quality extruded plastic mesh is used for drainage nets. This mesh is placed above the
precast perforated concrete layer and is used to protect the service tile drains from the garbage or
waste material, avoiding the garbage material from getting into the concrete perforations and the
vertical pipes inside the tile drain. The corner portion of the net is hammered to the side portion of
the concrete assembly with nuts. The thickness of the nets layer ranges from 4.8mm up to 8.4mm
and the sophisticated design allows for high flow rates, with excellent crush resistance at light
weights. Drainage plastic mesh made from the material HDPE with various mesh apertures and
thickness is used here. Colour standard for drainage plastic used is black. It has several advantages
like light in weight, easy to install, cost effective, high compression resistance, easy to clean, helps
maintain a hygienic environment, long-lasting, reusable, easy to store & transport.
39
Source: Google
Fig 4.4 Mesh/Net
VERTICAL DRAINAGE PIPE:

Vertical draining pipes are used in concrete assembly of service tile drain and below precast
perforated concrete layer. Their main role is to allow water to reach the service tile drain pipe and
move further. The diameter of pipe to be provided is 20mm and centre to centre distance between
pipes is to be 50mm. The material for vertical draining pipe is HDPE dual wall corrugated pipe.
The Drainage Water Conveyance (DWC) pipe require less raw material in comparison to solid
wall because of its corrugated shape / profile without reducing compression resistance strength of
pipe. It has maximum load bearing strength with more life span. Advantages of HDPE DWC pipe,
because of which we preferred are good resistance to corrosion, impact and abrasion, chemically
inert and environmentally safe, high ring stiffness, smooth inner wall so less friction losses,
roundness of pipe retained when bent and many more.
SERVICE TILE DRAIN PIPE:

Service Tile drain pipe is used at the bottom of concrete assembly of service tile drain and
below the vertical drainage pipe. This pipe is punched with holes at the top so that the vertical
pipes can be easily extracted into the tile drain pipe. The diameter of tile drain pipe is to be such
that it can be accommodated into the region between the concrete assembly side walls. The
material used for this pipe is High Density Polypropylene Smooth Interior or PVC pipe. HDPP is
a great choice for sewer drainage system projects due to the ease of installation and the longer lay
length. The typical lay length for this pipe is 20 feet, meaning there are fewer joints compared to
RCP or PVC. The pipe is lightweight, which makes it simpler to install than reinforced concrete
pipes. Having a long service life, these pipes guarantee about value for your money. Material is
not poured/layered at the place between two vertical draining pipes because tile drain pipe is
already facing load on it so if we pour material like murum on it, it may get failed or crack or its
strength will get reduced.
4.2.2 MAIN TILE DRAIN:

Main tile drain is similar to service tile drain, except it runs along main road and it contains
same components as that of service tile drain. The water from service tile drain pipe runs into main
tile drain and the connections for the same is shown in below figure.
40
Concrete Flow Pipe
Connecting Pipes
Fig 4.5 Main Tile Drain Assembly
4.2.3 CONCRETE CONVEYANCE PIPE / CONCRETE FLOW PIPE:

This pipe conveys the water which is coming from tile drain pipes of main tile drain and service
tile drain to the underground storm water storage tanks. The diameter of pipe is according to the
requirement.
4.2.4 CONNECTING PIPES:

These are provided which conveys water to concrete pipe from tile drain pipe of service tile
drain and main tile drain. Material used for this pipe is High Density Polypropylene.
4.2.5 UNDERGROUND STORM WATER STORAGE TANKS:
These tanks are underground, which are rectangular in shape, having 1 m height portion above
G.L and remaining portion below G.L. The freeboard provided for the tanks is of height 0.2m.
Submersible pump of 10 horsepower is provided at bottom of each tank for pumping out water
from the tanks. Connected pipe of cast iron material of diameter 3 inch (75 mm) is used at one side
of the tank and connected to submersible pump to get the water out of the tank. The tanks are
connected to each other with bottom with connecting pipes having diameter 0.4m, where
open/close valves are provided.
41
Fig 4.6 Underground Storm Water Storage Tanks
42
4.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF MODEL:
When rainwater falls on the road surface, the rainwater accumulates towards the service drain
tile system which is provided along both side of the road due to the camber slope of the road. The
water gets entrapped into the perforations of the perforated concrete layer. High quality extruded
plastic mesh is used for drainage nets. The mesh which is hammered around the corner portion of
the concrete assembly helps to avoid passing of unnecessary garbage items into the perforations
and the net/mesh avoids blockage of the perforations created because of garbage material. This
mesh is given above the precast perforated concrete layer. Using this drainage nets garbage will
be blocked.
The water runs down along slope of camber to the perforations of concrete layer and then falls
down into the tile drain pipe provided at the bottom of the service tile drain through vertical pipe
whose top end is connected to the bottom of the perforated concrete layer and the other end is
connected to the tile drain pipe. The tile drain pipe is punched with holes to allow the connection
of the vertical pipe and the tile drain pipe.
Water then after falling into the tile drain pipe conveys upto the length where connection of
bottom service tile drain pipe and main tile drain pipe meets. Then the water gets into the tile drain
pipe of main tile drain where similar type of assembly is provided on the large road width. Similar
type of operations can be seen in main tile drain system but here discharge of the service tile drain
is also added. And then the bottom main tile drain pipe is also connected to the concrete pipe for
further conveyance of water upto the underground storm water storage tanks. The tile drain pipes
are connected to concrete pipe with help of connecting pipe, placed at certain intervals. The whole
water from the service tile drain and the main tile drain is allowed to pass into the concrete pipe
and then further conveyance of it upto the tanks. The concrete pipe drives the water upto the tank
where the concrete pipe is connected to the bottom of the water tank. The water accumulates into
the tank.
The whole system of operation of the service tile drain, main tile drain, and concrete pipe is
under gravity. We have provided slopes for the pipes in such a way that whole operation of
rainwater conveyance is done under the gravitational force.
The Underground storm water storage tanks are connected to each other at the top through
connecting pipes. The tanks are connected with automatic electric valves provided at each
connecting pipe so that when we want to transfer the water from one tank to other tank with the
help of these valves.
Submersible pump/Electric submersible motor (Jalpari motor) of 10 horsepower is provided at
the bottom of each tank (or at the last tank, depending upon site conditions) for pumping out the
water from the tanks, for usage. A pipe of cast iron material of diameter 3 inch (75 mm) is provided
at one side inside the tank whose one end is connected is to the submersible pump and the other
end is taken upto the top of the tank to pump out the water out of the tank.
43
The water in the tank is filtered with sand filter provided and can be used for different purposes.
The tanks are connected to the existing storm water drainage system, so that, in case the tanks get
filled, the water will then get into the drainage system.
When there is drought like situation with scarcity of water then the water which is stored in
these tanks can be used.
44
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 RESPONSE OF QUESTIONAIRE:
This survey has been prepared based on information obtained from a survey conducted on a
sample of 160 residents from the areas like Hindmata, Sion, Matunga, King’s circle, Parel, residing
in areas with different degrees of exposure to the risk of flooding. The residents were questioned
about the floods they had suffered and gave varied responses to the degree of flood damage on the
population, to the amount of information and the degree of insurance against floods.
The questionnaire was structured on different aspects that emphasized: identification, level of
experience, knowledge and information; the perception of the causes that generated and amplified
floods; the perception involving authorities in prevention and mitigation of flood damage;
availability for implementation of voluntary actions, the degree of insurance and aid to flood. In
this study it was taken into account the location of households, the previous flood experience, the
age and the education level of the respondents.
To know all the flood perception levels, we made an opinion survey by sharing a online google
form among the residents of areas where flooding takes place. The questions were asked to a 160
people with permanent residence in these two towns. The survey has 23 questions according to the
floods risk perception problems.
5.1.1 RESPONSES:
According to 84.5% of people living there, they witnessed frequent floods in areas like King’s
circle, Sion, Dadar, Hindmata and Parel. These are one of the most flood prone areas in Mumbai
where floods frequently take place. From the respondents, most of them have the establishments
in flood occurring region with maximum flood risk. People have been facing water logging due to
continuous rains and because of that water gets entered into their houses. As per survey, 53.4
percent people are facing this problem. This survey has recorded that people face issue of
disruption or delay in public transports like local trains and BEST buses. The essentials and basic
needs get difficult to fulfill during heavy rains. There are some exposed manholes in those areas
which can be a danger for people walking on streets during floods.
People have been suffering due to floods hampering their day to day life activities. Among the
respondents, 59.6 percent of people have witnessed damage in their locality during floods. This
has caused vast loss to people and their properties. Due to floods, the solid waste materials like
plastic bottles, polythene bags, leaves, etc. floats over accumulated water and chokes the drains.
This choking does not allows water to pass through any drains and because of that the water level
goes on rising and it causes problems to people living there. It has been recorded for 83.9%, it
takes a little longer time for complete drain of accumulated water. People have been facing water
shortages in months of March, April, May, even though due to heavy rains and inundations. It has
been observed that water storage capacity is low in Mumbai. There is need for storage of water to
45
eliminate the problems of water scarcity. Local business owners and small scale firms have to bear
with the problems due to frequent floods.
There are some diseases which people have been facing during floods;
Leptospirosis- 21%
Typhoid- 42.6%
Fever- 64.2%
Cholera- 35.8%
Malaria- 47.5%
Dengue- 46.9%
5.1.2 CONCLUSION:
To improve the actions of preventing and reducing extreme natural hazards in this region, we
must pay a special attention to public awareness about the right flood perception and about the
peoples, and also local authorities’ responsibilities. Correct people information according to risk
exposure, people awareness about insurances, encouraging the participation into flood effects
preventing and reducing actions, collaboration with local authorities in rebuilding damaged zones,
will allow an harmonious integration of community with the environment and will help reducing
extreme natural hazards effects. According to survey, it has come to a point that there is need of
upgradation in our old systems for water storage and drainage.
46
5.2 CATCHMENT AREA DETERMINATION:
A catchment area is the area from which rainfall flows into a river, lake or a reservoir.
Catchments are important because it provides people, stock and flora and fauna with drinking
water. They provide people with water for domestic and industrial use.
To design such a system, it’s necessary to determine such a region, onto which, when rain
occurs, water gets accumulated in the region leading to inundations. The area that we have
considered is a region in King’s Circle in Mumbai, where frequent floods occur. The region
selected sees the shape of a ‘Bowl’. Such a shape was selected with the intention that, when rainfall
occurs in the region, water will follow a path, which will directly or indirectly, to the lowest point
of the Bowl, where flooding can take place.
5.2.1 PROCESS OF DETERMINATION OF CATCHMENT AREA:

The tool used for determination of the shape of region considered is Google Earth. Through
this tool, radial survey has been done around 2 km Radius from King’s Circle region where
flooding takes place. Due to severe conditions, data was not available and site conditions were not
preferable for any survey to be carried out, so we decided to use Google earth tool as an alternative.
Through this radial survey, area in which the rainfall water left will directly or indirectly follow
a path to the flooded region. Here, the flooding which takes place due to man-made causes such
as operational assets, radioactive waste, industrialization, leakage etc. were not taken into
consideration. For determining the catchment area, only natural flow of surfaces were taken into
consideration.
Source: Google Earth
Fig 5.1 Catchment Area Shape From Google Earth
47
The catchment areas for the King’s Circle region which we have taken into consideration is shown
above. This is an image taken from Google Earth. The catchment area which contributes to the
discharge at King’s Circle is 394330.40m2.
After carrying out Radial survey, we marked the highest elevation points on the area beneath
which the water which is left will reach the main region and all the ridge points were determined
at first stage and then were joined consecutively to each other to get a definite catchment area of
N size polygon shaped. After determining all those points, the GPS coordinates of all these points
were noted down. All the details of the boundary points which are a part of catchment area have
been presented in the below table. For Simplicity purpose, only the GPS coordinate of one point
is given, as with the help of that point, the coordinates of other points can be easily calculated and
marked on the ground with ease. The AutoCAD image along with the corner point details are
shown below:
Source: Figure drawn on Autocad software
Fig 5.2 Catchment Area Considered
48
Point Line Distance (m) Bearing
P1 P1-P2 197.6 52.119°
P2 P2-P3 29.23 92.842°
P3 P3-P4 68.72 25.259°
P4 P4-P5 84.43 42.955°
P5 P5-P6 107.17 54.986°
P6 P6-P7 84.96 17.846°
P7 P7-P8 58.4 251.138°
P8 P8-P9 257.95 13.477°
P9 P9-P10 326.65 33.066°
P10 P10-P11 250.73 279.972°
P11 P11-P12 338.88 201.831°
P12 P12-P13 251.702 293.041°
P13 P13-P14 173.88 202.567°
P14 P14-P15 90.86 229.472°
P15 P15-P16 183.36 206.992°
P16 P16-P17 373.96 170.935°
P17 P17-P18 178.01 100.051°
P18 P18-P1 67.29 17.737°
Latitude and Longitude of Point P2:
Latitude (in Decimal Degrees): 19.030562
Longitude (in Decimal Degrees): 72.859446
Note: All Latitudes are directed in North Direction and all Longitudes in East Direction.
Table 5.1 Catchment Area Corner Point Details
As the points are noted down, to replicate it in Auto Cad for further analysis, we needed to
determine the bearing of all the lines which we determined it using Haversine distance formula.
5.2.2 HAVERSINE DISTANCE FORMULA:

Let ‘R’ be the radius of Earth, ‘L’ be the longitude, ‘θ’ be latitude, ‘β‘be Bearing of a line.
Denote point A and B as two different points, where ‘La’ is point A longitude and ‘θa’ is point A
latitude, similarly assume for point B. Bearing would be measured from North direction i.e 0°
bearing means North, 90° bearing is East, 180° bearing is measured to be South, and 270° to be
West.
Note: If bearing is denoted with +ve or –ve initials whose values lies between 0° to 180°, then –
ve is denoted for South and West sides.
49
FORMULA:
Bearing from point A to B, can be calculated as,
β = atan2(X, Y),
Where X and Y are two quantities and can be calculated as:
X = cos θb * sin ∆L
Y = cos θa * sin θb – sin θa * cos θb * cos ∆L
Let us understand this, with the help of an example:
Let latitude and longitude of points P2 and P3 be:
P2: 19.030562°N, 72.859446°E
P3: 19.030549°N, 72.859723°E
X and Y can be calculated as:
X = cos (19.030549) * sin (72.859723-72.859446)
= 4.57033*10-6
Y = cos (19.030562) * sin (19.030549) – sin (19.030562) * cos (19.030549) * cos (72.859723-
72.859446)
= 0.201928
Now, β = atan2 (4.57033*10-6, 0.201928)
= 1.6203985 radians
= 92.848°
For simplification in calculations, we have used IGIS map tool, which takes the coordinates in
terms of latitude and longitude and gives us the bearing of line in degrees. The link for the same
is given below:
https://www.igismap.com/map-tool/bearing-angle?amp
The below figure 5.3 represents the road network present inside the area considered. The figure
consists of arrows, which gives a clear indication of how the water leads to the lowest point of the
bowl, leading to water accumulation and inundations.
The analysis of prototype to be considered on such a large area will turn out to be very complex.
So, for simplification in analysis for easy understanding, a smaller region, which is a part of the
whole catchment is taken for analysis, whose shape is represented in figure 5.4. Also, the distance
and bearing of line between the corner points have also been shown in the following table 5.2. The
area considered for analysis is 113586.59m2.
50
Fig 5.3 Flow Directions along Road leading towards NH3
51
Fig 5.4 Catchment Area considered for Analysis
52
Point Line Distance (m) Bearing
1 1 to 2 49.67 46°
2 2 to 3 46.55 205°
3 3 to 4 32.013 141°
4 4 to 5 30.7456 18°
5 5 to 6 197.56 52°
6 6 to 7 29.23 93°
7 7 to 8 68.72 25°
8 8 to 9 84.43 43°
9 9 to 10 107.17 55°
10 10 to 11 84.96 18°
11 11 to 12 58.4 251°
12 12 to 13 257.95 13°
13 13 to 14 60.98 33°
14 14 to 15 84.32 240°
15 15 to 16 102.83 236°
16 16 to 17 114.21 111°
17 17 to 18 295.56 202°
18 18 to 1 331.4 202°
Latitude and Longitude of Point 6:
Latitude (in Decimal Degrees): 19.030562
Longitude (in Decimal Degrees): 72.859446
Table 5.2 Corner Point Details for Catchment Area Considered for Analysis
From here onwards, catchment means the hatched region, which is taken for analysis.
53
5.3 PROVISION OF COMPONENTS INVOLVED:
The main components involved here are service tile drain, main tile drain, and concrete pipe and water tanks. The main and service
tile drain are provided along the edge of the road, where the roadway ends and where footpath starts. These will run p arallel to the
length of the road. At majority of the portions, these are allowed to run along the natural slope, for ease in construction and less
excavation required.
The details of main and service tile drain are provided in table 5.3 and 5.4. An AutoCAD image has also been attached in fig 5.5
for understanding of the location and alignment along which, the tile drains have been provided.
The concrete pipes are allowed to run parallel to the tile drains (main and service), at a certain fixed distance away from them.
The tile drain and concrete pipe are connected by a connecting pipe. These concrete pipes are connected to the water tanks, w hich
are placed along Flank road, near King’s Circle Region and at GSB Sports Ground.
Start point details Finish point details

Tile Latitude (in Longitude (in Latitude (in Longitude (in Distance Bearing (in
Drain no. Decimal Degrees) Decimal Degrees) Decimal Degrees) Decimal Degrees) (m) degrees)
1 19.033188 72.860817 19.033976 72.861146 93.86 20.019°
2 19.033976 72.861146 19.034969 72.861649 122.02 25.587°
3 19.034969 72.861649 19.035157 72.861355 34.78 304.076°
4 19.029465 72.857967 19.029703 72.857912 26.91 347.677°
5 19.029703 72.857912 19.030847 72.859282 191.95 48.545°
6 19.030847 72.859282 19.030557 72.859572 44.98 136.609°
7 19.030552 72.859665 19.030887 72.859331 51.15 316.695°
8 19.030887 72.859331 19.031469 72.860016 96.67 48.052°
9 19.031469 72.860016 19.031975 72.860492 75.22 41.646°
10 19.031975 72.860492 19.032177 72.860652 27.9 36.825°
11 19.032177 72.860652 19.032845 72.861304 99.8 42.697°
12 19.030065 72.857983 19.030617 72.858612 90.11 47.129°
13 19.030617 72.858612 19.031678 72.859869 173.53 48.239°
14 19.031678 72.859869 19.031745 72.85985 7.65 344.993°
54
15 19.031745 72.85985 19.031838 72.859749 14.82 314.246°
16 19.031838 72.859749 19.032154 72.858846 93.42 290.314°
17 19.032213 72.858868 19.031962 72.859553 77.35 111.187°
18 19.031962 72.859553 19.033837 72.860368 224.59 22.338°
19 19.033837 72.860368 19.034076 72.860507 30.23 28.802°
20 19.034076 72.860507 19.034365 72.860717 38.93 34.486°
21 19.034365 72.860717 19.034511 72.860385 38.58 294.948°
22 19.034511 72.860385 19.034596 72.860103 31.07 287.685°
23 19.034596 72.860103 19.03466 72.85991 21.6 289.33°
24 19.031957 72.859625 19.031883 72.859805 20.56 113.503°
25 19.031883 72.859805 19.031805 72.859886 12.2 135.529°
26 19.031805 72.859886 19.031729 72.859917 8.98 158.913°
27 19.031729 72.859917 19.032441 72.860557 103.64 40.356°
28 19.032441 72.860557 19.032759 72.860602 35.44 7.619°
29 19.032759 72.860602 19.033191 72.860734 49.91 16.111°
30 19.033191 72.860734 19.033966 72.861073 92.88 22.465°
31 19.033966 72.861073 19.034478 72.861326 62.57 25.038°
32 19.034478 72.861326 19.03496 72.861576 59.49 26.119°
33 19.03496 72.861576 19.035104 72.861317 31.54 300.462°
34 19.035104 72.861317 19.033999 72.860523 148.2 214.187°
35 19.033999 72.860523 19.033608 72.860339 47.43 203.982°
36 19.033608 72.860339 19.032598 72.859912 120.46 201.785°
37 19.032598 72.859912 19.031957 72.859625 77 202.941°
38 19.032511 72.860638 19.03315 72.861268 86.08 47.015°
39 19.032511 72.860638 19.032741 72.86067 25.68 7.493°
40 19.032741 72.86067 19.033188 72.860817 51.89 17.269°
Table 5.3 Service Tile Drain Details (All Latitudes and Longitude are directed in North and East Direction.)
55
Start point details Finish point details
Tile Latitude (in Longitude (in Latitude (in Longitude (in Distance Bearing (in
Drain no. Decimal Degrees) Decimal Degrees) Decimal Degrees) Decimal Degrees) (m) degrees)
1 19.030065 72.857983 19.030661 72.858234 71.04 21.709°
2 19.030661 72.858234 19.031024 72.858337 41.65 15.015°
3 19.031024 72.858337 19.031497 72.858537 56.43 21.788°
4 19.031497 72.858537 19.032154 72.858846 80.13 23.970°
5 19.032213 72.858868 19.034659 72.859909 292.35 21.916°
Table 5.4 Main Tile Drain Details (All Latitudes and Longitude are directed in North and East Direction.)
Concrete Pipe Concrete Pipe Concrete Pipe Concrete Pipe

Length (m) Length (m) Length (m) Length (m)
Name Name Name Name
CP1 228.43 CP5 224.04 CP9 345.68 CP13 386.54
CP2 46.94 CP6 329.04 CP10 552.15 CP14 280.86
CP3 51.26 CP7 85.6 CP11 448.44
CP4 92.58 CP8 10.48 CP12 458.6
Table 5.5 Concrete Pipe Details
The details about the length of concrete pipe to be provided are shown in table 5.3. Here, the bearing of line and its GPS coordinates
were not noted down. This is because, these pipes are to be run, parallel to the tile drain and with the help of GPS coordinates of tile
drain, these concrete can be laid down easily. The concrete pipe layout along with water tanks has been shown in the AutoCAD image
in fig 5.6.
56
Fig 5.5 Main and Service Tile Drain Layout
57
Water Tank along Flank road
Water Tank at GSB Sports Ground
Fig 5.6 Concrete Pipe Layout
58
5.4 RAINFALL DATA ANALYSIS AND IDF CURVES:
For computation of parameters in prototype, it’s necessary to determine the intensity for
which the prototype is to be designed. It is done by drawing IDF curves. An intensity-duration-
frequency curve (IDF curve) is a mathematical function that relates the rainfall intensity with its
duration and frequency of occurrence. These curves are commonly used in hydrology for flood
forecasting and civil engineering for urban drainage design.
For computation of IDF curve, previous years’ rainfall data is required as IDF curves are
obtained through frequency analysis of rainfall observations. The annual rainfall for the past 25
years was taken from India-WRIS (India Water Resource Information System) portal, which is
presented in table 5.6.
Annual Annual Annual
Year Rainfall Year Rainfall Year Rainfall
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1996 2235.95 2005 2680.13 2013 2681.67
1997 2226.94 2006 2813.42 2014 2266.36
1998 2403.12 2007 2809.97 2015 1764.27
1999 1761.55 2008 2479.53 2016 3489.9
2000 2484.3 2009 2097.28 2017 3807.98
2001 1664.51 2010 3290.47 2018 3944.66
2002 1324.23 2011 3121.77 2019 5946.69
2003 2151.27 2012 1974.33 2020 2170.8
2004 2267.94
Table 5.6 Annual Rainfall over the past 25 Years
Along with this data, from India-WRIS website, maximum daily rainfall obtain in each year
over the past 25 years considered has been taken, which is shown in table 5.7.
Max daily Max daily Max daily
Year Year Year
Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (mm)
1996 127.42 2005 419.09 2013 220.09
1997 288.81 2006 210.05 2014 191.76
1998 212.43 2007 143.27 2015 219.2
1999 200.46 2008 193.6 2016 177.65
2000 228.06 2009 175.35 2017 180.37
2001 165.57 2010 155.39 2018 228.66
2002 127.71 2011 203.17 2019 377.91
2003 139.11 2012 121.06 2020 143.73
2004 147.51
Table 5.7 Maximum Daily Rainfall in each Year over past 25 Years
59
For drawing IDF curves, it’s necessary to obtain the max. rainfall for duration of 15 min, 30
min, 45 min, 60 min, 90 min, 2 hr, and so on. But, majority of the times, it becomes impractical
to record rainfall at such short intervals, regularly. There is a great possibility of data not being
recorded at various intervals. So, IMD (Indian Meteorological Department) came with an
empirical reduction formula for estimation of rainfall of various durations like 1-hour, 2-hour,
3-hour, 5-hour, 8-hour rainfall values from annual maximum daily values. This formula has been
used earlier to estimate the short rainfall duration from daily rainfall data in Sylhet city and found
that this formula give the best estimation of short duration formula. The empirical formula is
given as:
Pt =P24 * (t/24) (1/3)
Where Pt = Required rainfall depth in mm at t-hr duration
P24 = Daily Rainfall in mm
t = duration of rainfall for which the rainfall depth is required in hr.
Let us understand this, with the help of a simple example:
Example: If max daily rainfall is 288.81 mm and if max. Rainfall for 5 min ((1/12) th hr) interval
is to calculated, then it is given as
P5 = 288.81 (5/ (12*24)) (1/3)
= 43.73mm
Similar analysis has been done for all max. Daily rainfall for each year and the results
obtained are shown in table 5.8.
There are different methods for drawing IDF curves. These methods can be classified into 2
simple categories: Deterministic and Probabilistic. IMD has come up with its own method for
drawing IDF curves, which is deterministic. In Probabilistic approach, there are basically 4
methods, which are:
1) Normal Distribution
2) Log Normal Distribution
3) Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution
4) Log Pearson Type III Distribution
Out of all these methods, Gumbel Method has been used for our analysis, as it’s easy and
simple to understand and use. Also, it is widely used in India as it provides extreme values in
hydrologic and meteorological studies for prediction of flood peak and maximum rainfall, etc.
Let us see the process of analysis in further steps.
60
Rainfall For Duration of
Year Max daily Rainfall (mm) 5 min 10 min 15 min 30 min 45 min 60 min 90 min 2 hrs 6 hrs 12 hrs
1996 127.42 19.29 24.31 27.83 35.06 40.13 44.17 50.57 55.66 80.27 101.13
1997 288.81 43.73 55.10 63.07 79.47 90.97 100.12 114.61 126.15 181.94 229.23
1998 212.43 32.17 40.53 46.39 58.45 66.91 73.65 84.30 92.79 133.82 168.61
1999 200.46 30.35 38.24 43.78 55.16 63.14 69.50 79.55 87.56 126.28 159.11
2000 228.06 34.53 43.51 49.81 62.75 71.83 79.06 90.51 99.61 143.67 181.01
2001 165.57 25.07 31.59 36.16 45.56 52.15 57.40 65.71 72.32 104.30 131.41
2002 127.71 19.34 24.37 27.89 35.14 40.23 44.27 50.68 55.78 80.45 101.36
2003 139.11 21.06 26.54 30.38 38.28 43.82 48.23 55.21 60.76 87.63 110.41
2004 147.51 22.34 28.14 32.22 40.59 46.46 51.14 58.54 64.43 92.93 117.08
2005 419.09 63.46 79.96 91.53 115.32 132.01 145.29 166.32 183.05 264.01 332.63
2006 210.05 31.81 40.07 45.87 57.80 66.16 72.82 83.36 91.75 132.32 166.72
2007 143.27 21.69 27.33 31.29 39.42 45.13 49.67 56.86 62.58 90.25 113.71
2008 193.6 29.32 36.94 42.28 53.27 60.98 67.12 76.83 84.56 121.96 153.66
2009 175.35 26.55 33.45 38.30 48.25 55.23 60.79 69.59 76.59 110.46 139.18
2010 155.39 23.53 29.65 33.94 42.76 48.94 53.87 61.67 67.87 97.89 123.33
2011 203.17 30.77 38.76 44.37 55.90 63.99 70.44 80.63 88.74 127.99 161.26
2012 121.06 18.33 23.10 26.44 33.31 38.13 41.97 48.04 52.88 76.26 96.09
2013 220.09 33.33 41.99 48.07 60.56 69.32 76.30 87.34 96.13 138.65 174.69
2014 191.76 29.04 36.59 41.88 52.76 60.40 66.48 76.10 83.76 120.80 152.20
2015 219.2 33.19 41.82 47.87 60.32 69.04 75.99 86.99 95.74 138.09 173.98
2016 177.65 26.90 33.89 38.80 48.88 55.96 61.59 70.50 77.60 111.91 141.00
2017 180.37 27.31 34.41 39.39 49.63 56.81 62.53 71.58 78.78 113.63 143.16
2018 228.66 34.63 43.63 49.94 62.92 72.02 79.27 90.74 99.88 144.05 181.49
2019 377.91 57.23 72.10 82.53 103.99 119.03 131.01 149.97 165.07 238.07 299.95
2020 143.73 21.76 27.42 31.39 39.55 45.27 49.83 57.04 62.78 90.54 114.08
Table 5.8 Max. Rainfall for Different Time Intervals over past 25 Years
61
Step 1: Determine the maximum depth of rainfall of each rainfall event for 15,30,45,60.....minutes
interval occurring on one day. Similarly, determine maximum rainfall depth and duration for all
rainfall events occurring each day for the entire year and then find out the maximum rainfall depth
and duration occurring in the year for 15, 30, 45…minutes for 25 years.
Step-2: Similarly, maximum rain fall depths of each year for 15,30,45,60.......minutes duration is
to be obtained for entire sample size i.e 25 years and thus annual maximum series has to be
prepared.
Step-3: Apply Gumbel distribution on the above tabulated annual series to obtain maximum values
for annual rainfall depth corresponding to 15,30,45,60....minutes duration for 5 years storm return
period and subsequently convert into intensity (mm/hr).
Step 4: Plot Intensity Duration Frequency for the above obtained values.
FORMULAS INVOLVED:
The equation is given as
Xt = u + (a * yt)
Where ‘u’ and ‘a’ are the mode of distribution and sample moments respectively, which are
further given by the following equation.
u = Xm – (0.5772 * a)
a = (√6 /π) * Sx
A reduced variate yt for a return period can defined as
yt = -ln (b)
Where b= ln (T/ (T-1))
Where
Xt = T-Year return period value.
Xm = Mean of the N observations
Sx = Standard Deviation of N observations = √ ((x-x) 2/ (N-1))
N = Sample size
T = Recurrence Interval (Storm Return Period)
X = Rainfall Event
To continue further with the calculations, it is necessary to determine the return period for
which the IDF is to be drawn. The recommended design return period for various types of urban
catchments are given in below table:
62
Return Period
Sr.No Urban Catchment
Mega Cities Other Cities
1 Central Business and Commercial Once in 5 Years Once in 2 Years
2 Industrial Once in 5 Years Once in 2 Years
3 Urban Residential Core Area Once in 5 Years Once in 2 Years
4 Urban Residential Peripheral Area Once in 2 Years Once in 1 Years
5 Open Space, Parks and Landscape Once in 6 Months Once in 6 Months
6 Airports and other critical infrastructure Once in 100 Years Once in 50 Years
⃰critical infrastructure includes Railway Stations, Power stations, etc.
Table 5.9 Storm Return Period for Different Scenarios
Since our region falls in the region of Mega city with Urban Residential Core Area, the return
period taken for analysis here is once in 5 Years. Let us understand the process of calculation
with the help of a sample calculation as shown below:
Sample Calculation: For 5 min interval:
Mean (Xm) = 30.270 mm
Standard Deviation (Sx) = 10.908
a = (√6 /π) * Sx
= (√6 /π) * 10.908
= 8.505
u = Xm – (0.5772 * a)
= 30.270 – (0.5772 * 8.505)
= 25.361
b= ln (T/ (T-1))
= ln (5/ (5-1))
= 0.223
yt = -ln (b)
= -ln (0.223)
= 1.500
Xt = u + (a * yt)
= 25.361 + (8.505 * 1.5)
= 38.118
Intensity (mm/hr) = Xt * (60/5)
= 38.118 * (60/5)
= 457.411 mm/hr
The calculations for other intervals have been shown in the below table. Also, using this data,
IDF curve has been drawn which is shown below. Now, further, with the help of this curve,
further computations can be done.
63
Computation using Gumbel Distribution Method
5 min 10 min 15 min 30 min 45 min 60 min 90 min 2 hrs 6 hrs 12 hrs
Mean (Xm) 30.270 38.138 43.657 55.004 62.964 69.300 79.329 87.313 125.927 158.659
Standard Deviation (S)
10.908 13.743 15.732 19.821 22.689 24.973 28.587 31.464 45.379 57.174
a=(sqrt(6)/pi)*S 8.505 10.716 12.266 15.454 17.691 19.471 22.289 24.532 35.382 44.578
u=Xm-0.5772a 25.361 31.953 36.577 46.084 52.752 58.062 66.464 73.153 105.505 132.928
For T=10 Years,
b=ln(T/(T-1)) 0.223 0.223 0.223 0.223 0.223 0.223 0.223 0.223 0.223 0.223
yt=-ln(ln(T/(T-1))) 1.500 1.500 1.500 1.500 1.500 1.500 1.500 1.500 1.500 1.500
Xt=u + a*yt 38.118 48.025 54.975 69.264 79.288 87.267 99.896 109.950 158.576 199.793
Intensity (mm/hr) 457.411 288.151 219.900 138.529 105.717 87.267 66.598 54.975 26.429 16.649
Table 5.10 Results for IDF curve using Gumbel Distribution Method
64
450 419.09
400 377.91
350
Maximum Daily Rainfall
288.81
300
250 228.06 220.09 219.2 228.66
212.43200.46 210.05 203.17
193.6 191.76
200 175.35 177.65180.37
(mm)
165.57 155.39
147.51 143.27 143.73
150 127.42 127.71139.11 121.06
100
50
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Year
Source: Graph drawn on MS Excel
Fig 5.7 Graph of Max. Daily Rainfall vs Year
65
500.000
457.411
450.000
400.000
350.000
INTENSITY MM/HR
288.151
300.000
250.000 219.900
200.000
138.529
150.000
105.717
87.267
100.000 66.598
54.975
50.000 26.429 16.649
0.000
5 min 10 min 15 min 30 min 45 min 60 min 90 min 2 hrs 6 hrs 12 hrs
DURATION
Source: Graph drawn on MS Excel
Fig 5.8 IDF curve for 5-Year Return Period
66
5.5 DISTINCT NAMING OF PIPES FOR ANALYSIS:
For calculation purpose, different naming of pipe has been considered. This is for
simplification in calculations and also, to reduce the side of tile drain required, as there are areal
constraints in the region. Through this naming of pipes, further computations have been done.
At the end of each pipe, a connecting pipe has been provided, which takes water from tile drain
to concrete pipe, which is perpendicular to tile drain. The table 5.3, 5.4 and below tables, when
integrated together, gives a clear idea about the exact location of connecting pipes, so, like
concrete pipes, GPS coordinates and bearing of connecting pipe were not recorded. The below
figure and image shows the tile drain, along with their length.
Pipe Length Length Length Length
Pipe No. Pipe No. Pipe No.
No. (m) (m) (m) (m)
SR1 68.365 SR27 44.66 SR52 32.72 MR17 14.41
SR2 23.75 SR28 41.42 SR53 69.47 MR18 11.16
SR3 23.2 SR29 64.47 SR54 46.5 MR19 9.82
SR4 22.154 SR30 37.4 SR55 16.47 MR20 12.44
SR5 21.09 SR31 32.02 SR56 16.71 MR21 124.806
SR6 20.13 SR32 28.86 SR57 17.45 MR22 38.23
SR7 19.63 SR33 29.75 SR58 10.96 MR23 37.53
SR8 18.815 SR34 40.14 SR59 7.78 MR24 96.32
SR9 20.083 SR35 60.83 SR26 29.53 MR25 146.8
SR10 41.98 SR36 34.79 MR1 111.06 MR26 33.162
SR11 51.56 SR37 27.59 MR2 25.06 MR27 28.25
SR12 33.2 SR38 78.66 MR3 19.33 MR28 26.15
SR13 22.46 SR39 45.72 MR4 20.49 MR29 26.46
SR14 20.09 SR40 34.96 MR5 24.26 MR30 23.65
SR15 38.785 SR41 33.77 MR6 30.98 MR31 24.12
SR16 33.5 SR42 34.03 MR7 60.35 MR32 19.54
SR17 15.59 SR43 32.33 MR8 43.24 MR33 169.16
SR18 12.41 SR44 44.77 MR9 12.21 MR34 36.415
SR19 15.07 SR45 119.89 MR10 8.32 MR35 30.3
SR20 15.98 SR46 34.32 MR11 9.05 MR36 26.26
SR21 16.9 SR47 28.85 MR12 8.54 MR37 23.96
SR22 17.75 SR48 26.63 MR13 13.97 MR38 56.22
SR23 18.93 SR49 26.43 MR14 19.45 MR39 56.26
SR24 21.42 SR50 27.94 MR15 33.72 MR40 29.02
SR25 16.65 SR51 27.25 MR16 18.02 MR41 29.8
MR42 38.89
Table 5.11 Naming and Length of Pipe for Analysis
67
Source: Figure drawn on Autocad Software
Fig 5.9 Distinct Naming of Pipes for Analysis
68
5.6 AREA DIVISIONS OF CATCHMENT:
As per the individual, it is necessary to find out the area which contributes to the discharge
in each tile drain. First, the profile of the catchment area was studied with the help of Google
Earth Pro software and then, area was divided into a number of sub-catchments. The division of
the area can be understood by the below figure. Also, area of each sub-catchment was noted
down in the below table.
Area of Area of Area of Area of
Pipe sub- Pipe sub- sub- sub-
Pipe No. Pipe No.
No. catchment No. catchment catchment catchment
(in m2) (in m2) (in m2) (in m2)
SR1 1917.25 SR27 1849.94 SR52 868.03 MR17 1082.89
SR2 961.092 SR28 956.04 SR53 879.27 MR18 1052.17
SR3 960.792 SR29 956.15 SR54 910.4 MR19 1072.88
SR4 958.155 SR30 960.16 SR55 883.8 MR20 772.68
SR5 955.21 SR31 955.52 SR56 900.75 MR21 1126
SR6 952.714 SR32 959.35 SR57 911.01 MR22 1171.82
SR7 959.1966 SR33 958.5 SR58 605.31 MR23 1023
SR8 951.2271 SR34 958.6 SR59 733.23 MR24 1193.22
SR9 924.9541 SR35 749.78 SR26 910.4 MR25 2482
SR10 547.635 SR36 1427.32 MR1 2383 MR26 1222
SR11 1897.67 SR37 1912.77 MR2 1086 MR27 1223.82
SR12 932.57 SR38 960.9 MR3 1040.2 MR28 1215.62
SR13 961.5 SR39 958.5 MR4 1110 MR29 1218
SR14 961.47 SR40 960.55 MR5 1092.5 MR30 1222
SR15 1754.15 SR41 953.74 MR6 1092.76 MR31 1222
SR16 1906.0993 SR42 954.62 MR7 803.66 MR32 1222
SR17 956.82 SR43 960.9 MR8 2350 MR33 2545
SR18 961 SR44 951.87 MR9 1236 MR34 1272
SR19 957 SR45 1808.82 MR10 1242 MR35 1266
SR20 959.23 SR46 910.8 MR11 1228 MR36 1272
SR21 958.36 SR47 910.9 MR12 1272 MR37 1270
SR22 941 SR48 910.95 MR13 1272 MR38 1272
SR23 938.26 SR49 911 MR14 610 MR39 1222
SR24 955.67 SR50 908.19 MR15 1093 MR40 1220
SR25 761.46 SR51 901.11 MR16 1122 MR41 925
MR42 667.7
Table 5.12 Area under each pipe
69
Fig 5.10 Catchment distribution for each pipe
70
5.7 PIPE FLOW DIRECTIONS:
Our prototype works on the basis of gravity flow, meaning water in the pipe will be moving
under gravity and no such pumping is required, saving operational costs. To have uniform gravity
flow, it is necessary to lay the pipes in such a manner, which allows the gravity flow to happen.
In this section, the flow directions viz. the way pipes are being laid is shown with the help of
below figure. The flow directions are shown for main and service tile drain in one figure and for
concrete pipe in another figure.
Fig 5.11 Flow direction in main and service tile drain pipes
71
Fig 5.12 Flow directions in concrete pipes
72
5.8 INTENSITY COMPUTATIONS FOR EACH SUBCATCHMENT:
For computation of discharge which the tile drain and pipe needs to take, it is necessary to
compute the intensity for which, the discharge is to be calculated. To calculate intensity required,
it is necessary to compute time of concentration, as with the help of this value, by interpolating
with IDF curve obtained above, the intensity can be determined. So, let us study about the time
of concentration in detail in subsequent points.
Time of concentration (tc):
Time of concentration is a concept used in hydrology to measure the response of a watershed
to rain event. It is defined as the time needed for water to flow from the most remote point in a
watershed to the watershed outlet. It is a function of the topography, geology, and land use within
the watershed. In Storm Drainage System, the time of concentration for conduit sizing is the time
required for water to travel from the most hydraulically distant point in the total contributing
catchment to the design point.
Typically, this time consists of two components: (1) the time for surface flow to reach the first
inlet i.e, t0, and (2) the time to flow through the storm drainage system to the point of consideration
i.e. tf.
t c = to + t f
The inlet time is dependent on the distance of farthest point in the drainage catchment to the
inlet manhole as said above, as well as, on the shape, characteristic and topography of the
catchment. It generally varies from 5 to 30 minutes in urban areas. In hilly areas the inlet time may
be as low as 3 minutes, where steep slopes are encountered. However, the following formula is
widely used to determine inlet time to reasonable accuracy.
Time of Surface Flow (to):

The formula to compute the time of surface flow has been developed by the Corps of Engineers
(USA) from air field drainage data. The method was originally intended for use on airfield drainage
problems, but has now been used frequently for surface flow in urban catchments. The formula to
calculate time of surface flow (t0) is given as follows:
0.994(1.1 − 𝐶)𝐿0.5
𝑡0 =
𝑆 0.333
Where,
t0 = Time of surface flow (in minutes)
C = Rational Method runoff coefficient
L = Length of surface flow (m)
S = Surface Slope, in percentage (%)
73
If slope (S) is expressed as a ratio, then the formula to be applied is
0.218(1.1 − 𝐶)𝐿0.5
𝑡0 =
𝑆 0.333
Time of flow in conduit (tf):
tf = (Lconduit /V)
The velocity of flow in m/s is computed from the Manning’s equation as
𝑉 =1𝑛 × 𝑅2/3 × 𝑆 0.5

Where
tf : Time of travel in conduit, minutes
n: Manning’s roughness coefficient
R: Hydraulic radius of conduit (m)
S: Longitudinal slope of conduit.
NOTE:- The minimum time of concentration should be 5 minutes. If time of concentration is
obtained is less than 5 minutes then we need to take time of concentration as 5 minutes for our
analysis.
The same approach has been followed for our project and by using the above formulae’s, the
time of concentration for each tile drain has been computed, which can be understood from table
5.13. Let us understand the calculations, with the help of an example, as shown below:
Example: For SR1,
Length of conduit (Lconduit) = 68.365m
Runoff Coefficient Considered (C) = 0.95
Length of Surface Flow (L) = 85.39m
Surface Slope (S) = 0.0078064
Allowable Velocity of Flow in pipe (V) = 1.6 m/s
Now, time of surface flow is given as

to = (0.218 * (1.1-0.95) * 85.390.5 )/ ( 0.00780641/3 ) = 1.5233 min
Also, time of flow in conduit is given as

tf = 68.365/(2.5*60) = 0.7121 min
So, time of concentration = 1.5233 + 0.7121 = 2.2354 min

Since this is less than 5 min, we will take tc as 5 min for further analysis. So, intensity to be
taken for this tile drain, for discharge computation is
i = 457.411 mm/hr
74
Time of
Length Time of
Allowable Time of Concentration
Runoff of Surface Time of Intensity
Pipe Length Surface Velocity flow (tc) (min)
Coeffic Surface Flow Concentration (i)
No. (m) Slope in pipe in pipe (tf) taken for
ient (k) Flow (t1) (tc) (min) (mm/hr)
(v) (m/s) (min) intensity
(L) (m) (min)
computation
SR1 68.365 0.95 85.39 0.0078064 1.5232 1.6 0.7121 2.24 5 457.411
SR2 23.75 0.95 54.61 0.0078064 1.2181 1.6 0.2474 1.47 5 457.411
SR3 23.2 0.95 55 0.0078064 1.2225 1.6 0.2417 1.46 5 457.411
SR4 22.154 0.95 57 0.0078064 1.2445 1.6 0.2308 1.48 5 457.411
SR5 21.09 0.95 59 0.0078064 1.2662 1.6 0.2197 1.49 5 457.411
SR6 20.13 0.95 59.5 0.0078064 1.2715 1.6 0.2097 1.48 5 457.411
SR7 19.63 0.95 60.5 0.0078064 1.2822 1.6 0.2045 1.49 5 457.411
SR8 18.815 0.95 61.5 0.0078064 1.2927 1.6 0.1960 1.49 5 457.411
SR9 20.083 0.95 62 0.0078064 1.2980 1.6 0.2092 1.51 5 457.411
SR10 41.98 0.95 20 0.0050000 0.8552 1.6 0.4373 1.29 5 457.411
SR11 51.56 0.95 61.7 0.0048622 1.5162 1.6 0.5371 2.05 5 457.411
SR12 33.2 0.95 37 0.0081081 0.9901 1.6 0.3458 1.34 5 457.411
SR13 22.46 0.95 49.3 0.0060852 1.2576 1.6 0.2340 1.49 5 457.411
SR14 20.09 0.95 46.5 0.0064516 1.1978 1.6 0.2093 1.41 5 457.411
SR15 38.785 0.95 46.5 0.0064516 1.1978 1.6 0.4040 1.60 5 457.411
SR16 33.5 0.95 58.42 0.0100000 1.1601 1.6 0.3490 1.51 5 457.411
SR17 15.59 0.95 65.5 0.0100000 1.2284 1.6 0.1624 1.39 5 457.411
SR18 12.41 0.95 63 0.0100000 1.2047 1.6 0.1293 1.33 5 457.411
SR19 15.07 0.95 63 0.0100000 1.2047 1.6 0.1570 1.36 5 457.411
SR20 15.98 0.95 63 0.0100000 1.2047 1.6 0.1665 1.37 5 457.411
SR21 16.9 0.95 59.16 0.0100000 1.1674 1.6 0.1760 1.34 5 457.411
SR22 17.75 0.95 51.1 0.0100000 1.0850 1.6 0.1849 1.27 5 457.411
SR23 18.93 0.95 51.1 0.0100000 1.0850 1.6 0.1972 1.28 5 457.411
75
SR24 21.42 0.95 45 0.0100000 1.0182 1.6 0.2231 1.24 5 457.411
SR25 16.65 0.95 45 0.0100000 1.0182 1.6 0.1734 1.19 5 457.411
SR27 44.66 0.95 127.4 0.0078493 1.8572 1.6 0.4652 2.32 5 457.411
SR28 41.42 0.95 57.5 0.0173913 0.9571 1.6 0.4315 1.39 5 457.411
SR29 64.47 0.95 24 0.0125000 0.6903 1.6 0.6716 1.36 5 457.411
SR30 37.4 0.95 30 0.0100000 0.8313 1.6 0.3896 1.22 5 457.411
SR31 32.02 0.95 33.5 0.0089552 0.9114 1.6 0.3335 1.24 5 457.411
SR32 28.86 0.95 34.2 0.0087719 0.9272 1.6 0.3006 1.23 5 457.411
SR33 29.75 0.95 34.2 0.0087719 0.9272 1.6 0.3099 1.24 5 457.411
SR34 40.14 0.95 28.6 0.0104895 0.7989 1.6 0.4181 1.22 5 457.411
SR35 60.83 0.95 20.2 0.0148515 0.5979 1.6 0.6336 1.23 5 457.411
SR36 34.79 0.95 71.5 0.0139860 1.1476 1.6 0.3624 1.51 5 457.411
SR37 27.59 0.95 135.5 0.0073801 1.9551 1.6 0.2874 2.24 5 457.411
SR38 78.66 0.95 21.5 0.0093023 0.7209 1.6 0.8194 1.54 5 457.411
SR39 45.72 0.95 26 0.0076923 0.8447 1.6 0.4763 1.32 5 457.411
SR40 34.96 0.95 26 0.0076923 0.8447 1.6 0.3642 1.21 5 457.411
SR41 33.77 0.95 28 0.0071429 0.8985 1.6 0.3518 1.25 5 457.411
SR42 34.03 0.95 28 0.0071429 0.8985 1.6 0.3545 1.25 5 457.411
SR43 32.33 0.95 31.6 0.0063291 0.9937 1.6 0.3368 1.33 5 457.411
SR44 44.77 0.95 32.3 0.0061920 1.0121 1.6 0.4664 1.48 5 457.411
SR45 119.89 0.95 27.3 0.0366300 0.5145 1.6 1.2489 1.76 5 457.411
SR46 34.32 0.95 33.1 0.0302115 0.6040 1.6 0.3575 0.96 5 457.411
SR47 28.85 0.95 35 0.0285714 0.6328 1.6 0.3005 0.93 5 457.411
SR48 26.63 0.95 35 0.0285714 0.6328 1.6 0.2774 0.91 5 457.411
SR49 26.43 0.95 35.5 0.0281690 0.6403 1.6 0.2753 0.92 5 457.411
SR50 27.94 0.95 36 0.0277778 0.6478 1.6 0.2910 0.94 5 457.411
SR51 27.25 0.95 36.2 0.0276243 0.6508 1.6 0.2839 0.93 5 457.411
SR52 32.72 0.95 32.8 0.0304878 0.5995 1.6 0.3408 0.94 5 457.411
76
SR53 69.47 0.95 23.2 0.0431034 0.4492 1.6 0.7236 1.17 5 457.411
SR54 46.5 0.95 38 0.0050000 1.1788 1.6 0.4844 1.66 5 457.411
SR55 16.47 0.95 54.5 0.0183486 0.9153 1.6 0.1716 1.09 5 457.411
SR56 16.71 0.95 56.1 0.0178253 0.9376 1.6 0.1741 1.11 5 457.411
SR57 17.45 0.95 57.3 0.0174520 0.9543 1.6 0.1818 1.14 5 457.411
SR58 10.96 0.95 58.5 0.0170940 0.9709 1.6 0.1142 1.09 5 457.411
SR59 7.78 0.95 58.5 0.0170940 0.9709 1.6 0.0810 1.05 5 457.411
SR26 29.53 0.95 53 0.0188679 0.8942 1.6 0.3076 1.20 5 457.411
MR1 111.06 0.95 46 0.0100000 1.0294 1.6 1.1569 2.19 5 457.411
MR2 25.06 0.95 56 0.0100000 1.1358 1.6 0.2610 1.40 5 457.411
MR3 19.33 0.95 64.2 0.0100000 1.2161 1.6 0.2014 1.42 5 457.411
MR4 20.49 0.95 64.2 0.0100000 1.1776 1.6 0.2134 1.39 5 457.411
MR5 24.26 0.95 60.2 0.0100000 1.1776 1.6 0.2527 1.43 5 457.411
MR6 30.98 0.95 60.2 0.0100000 0.8448 1.6 0.3227 1.17 5 457.411
MR7 60.35 0.95 32.5 0.0100000 0.8653 1.6 0.6286 1.49 5 457.411
MR8 43.24 0.95 108 0.0039576 2.1484 1.6 0.4504 2.60 5 457.411
MR9 12.21 0.95 129 0.0039576 2.3480 1.6 0.1272 2.48 5 457.411
MR10 8.32 0.95 150 0.0039576 2.5319 1.6 0.0867 2.62 5 457.411
MR11 9.05 0.95 151 0.0039576 2.5403 1.6 0.0943 2.63 5 457.411
MR12 8.54 0.95 151 0.0039576 2.5403 1.6 0.0890 2.63 5 457.411
MR13 13.97 0.95 113 0.0039576 2.1976 1.6 0.1455 2.34 5 457.411
MR14 19.45 0.95 63 0.0039576 0.4802 1.6 0.2026 0.68 5 457.411
MR15 33.72 0.95 39 0.0769231 1.0083 1.6 0.3513 1.36 5 457.411
MR16 18.02 0.95 95 0.0315789 1.1566 1.6 0.1877 1.34 5 457.411
MR17 14.41 0.95 112 0.0267857 0.4149 1.6 0.1501 0.56 5 457.411
MR18 11.16 0.95 127 0.0236220 1.2843 1.6 0.1163 1.40 5 457.411
MR19 9.82 0.95 141 0.0212766 1.4013 1.6 0.1023 1.50 5 457.411
MR20 12.44 0.95 141 0.0212766 1.4013 1.6 0.1296 1.53 5 457.411
77
MR21 124.806 0.95 25 0.0200000 0.6023 1.6 1.3001 1.90 5 457.411
MR22 38.23 0.95 35 0.0142857 0.7973 1.6 0.3982 1.20 5 457.411
MR23 37.53 0.95 34 0.0147059 0.7783 1.6 0.3909 1.17 5 457.411
MR24 96.32 0.95 25 0.0200000 0.6023 1.6 1.0033 1.61 5 457.411
MR25 146.8 0.95 36 0.0100000 0.9107 1.6 1.5292 2.44 5 457.411
MR26 33.162 0.95 44 0.0100000 1.0068 1.6 0.3454 1.35 5 457.411
MR27 28.25 0.95 51 0.0100000 1.0839 1.6 0.2943 1.38 5 457.411
MR28 26.15 0.95 57.1 0.0100000 1.1469 1.6 0.2724 1.42 5 457.411
MR29 26.46 0.95 65 0.0100000 1.2237 1.6 0.2756 1.50 5 457.411
MR30 23.65 0.95 72 0.0100000 1.2879 1.6 0.2464 1.53 5 457.411
MR31 24.12 0.95 80.2 0.0100000 1.3593 1.6 0.2513 1.61 5 457.411
MR32 19.54 0.95 86 0.0100000 1.4075 1.6 0.2035 1.61 5 457.411
MR33 169.16 0.95 30.2 0.0662252 0.4442 1.6 1.7621 2.21 5 457.411
MR34 36.415 0.95 39 0.0512821 0.5497 1.6 0.3793 0.93 5 457.411
MR35 30.3 0.95 45.5 0.0118784 0.9667 1.6 0.3156 1.28 5 457.411
MR36 26.26 0.95 51.3 0.0118784 1.0265 1.6 0.2735 1.30 5 457.411
MR37 23.96 0.95 55 0.0118784 1.0629 1.6 0.2496 1.31 5 457.411
MR38 56.22 0.95 50 0.0118784 1.0134 1.6 0.5856 1.60 5 457.411
MR39 56.26 0.95 46 0.0652174 0.5510 1.6 0.5860 1.14 5 457.411
MR40 29.02 0.95 51 0.0588235 0.6005 1.6 0.3023 0.90 5 457.411
MR41 29.8 0.95 45 0.0666667 0.5410 1.6 0.3104 0.85 5 457.411
MR42 38.89 0.95 37 0.0810811 0.4596 1.6 0.4051 0.86 5 457.411
Table 5.13 Intensity Computations for Each Catchment
78
5.9 CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS:
For discharge computations, there are different methods present. The method which we have
taken into consideration is the Rational Method. This method is used for estimating design
discharge for an urban catchment. Majority of urban storm drainage systems are designed on the
basis of Rational Method, in as much as 90% cases across the globe, in spite of having several
limitations. Let us study the steps involved in discharge estimation by this method.
Step 1: Obtain historical rainfall data of 25 years or more for the given project area.
Step 2: Select a return period as required.
Step 3: Prepare IDF curve for the above return period.
Step 4: Discretize the catchment by demarcating watersheds and drainage patterns of the project
area with the aid of existing maps and contour plans
Step 5: Determine time of concentration (tc) as described above.
Step 6: Determine rainfall intensity against time of concentration from IDF curve
Step 7: Determine runoff coefficient (C) of the surface present in the region.
Step 8: Calculate peak flow by rational formula as given below.
The formula for calculating design discharge is given as

Q= 10*C*I*A
Where Q = peak flow at the point of design, in m3/hr
C = Runoff coefficient, dimensionless
I = Average rainfall intensity should be taken for the duration of rainfall equal to the time
of concentration in mm/hr.
A = Catchment area, in hectares
This formula has few assumptions, which we have followed here:
1) The maximum size of a catchment should be between 8 to 10 sq km.
2) Larger catchments can be sub-divided into smaller sub-catchments.
3) The peak flow occurs when the entire catchment is contributing to the flow.
4) The rainfall intensity is uniform over the entire catchment.
5) The rainfall intensity is uniform over a time duration equal to the time of concentration.
6) The frequency of the computed peak flow is the same as that of the rainfall intensity
corresponding to the return period of the ‘design storm’.
7) The coefficient of runoff is the same for all storms of all recurrence probabilities.
Out of all the parameters required, the catchment area under each pipe has been calculated
and shown in section 5.8. The intensity to be taken has been calculated each pipe using time of
concentration values and interpolating with IDF curves, which is shown in table in section 5.10.
As per BRIMSTOWAD, we decided to take the runoff coefficient as 0.95, which is as per their
value. Also, the slope of each pipe assumed, is mentioned in the below table.
Now, to find out diameter of pipe required, Manning’s formula can be used. The formula is
given as:
𝑉 =1𝑛 × 𝑅2/3 × 𝑆 0.5
79
Where R = Hydraulic Radius, in m
S = Longitudinal slope of pipe, dimensionless
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient = 0.013 for concrete pipe
= 0.011 for High Density Polypropylene / PVC pipe
V = velocity of flow in pipe, m/s
Also, Q=A*V
2
Where A= area of pipe (m )
V= Velocity of flow in pipe (m/s)
Q= Discharge (m3/s)
For a circular pipe, hydraulic radius (R) = D/4 & A= (π/4) * D2
So, the formula for discharge can be simplified as:
0.3107 8
𝑄= ∗ 𝐷3 ∗ 𝑆 0.5
𝑛
CONNECTING PIPES:
As mentioned earlier, these are provided to carry water from tile drain to concrete pipe. There
are two types of connecting pipe (CNP), provided whose details are shown below:
Pipe No. Between Present At End of Diameter (m) Longitudinal Slope
Service Tile Drain (SR) and SR1 to SR59, MR15 to
CCP1 0.25 1 in 35
Concrete Pipe (CP) MR19, MR21 to MR24
Main Tile Drain (MR) and MR1 to MR14, MR20,
CCP2 0.3 1 in 50
Concrete Pipe (CP) MR25 to MR42
Table 5.14 Connecting Pipe Details
Discharge for CCP1:
Q= (0.3107/0.011) * 0.258/3 * (1/35)0.5
= 0.115 m3/s
Discharge for CCP2:

Q= (0.3107/0.011) * 0.38/3 * (1/50)0.5
= 0.1564 m3/s
Let us understand computation of diameter required with the help of a sample calculation as shown
below:
Sample Calculation:
For SR2:
Here,
Intensity to be taken (I) = 457.411 mm/hr
Catchment Area under this pipe (A) = 961.092 m2 = 0.0961092 hectare
Runoff Coefficient (C) = 0.95
Longitudinal Slope (S) = 1/150 = 0.006667
So, QpipeSR2 = 10 * 0.95 * 457.411 * 0.0961092
= 417.6333 m3/hr = 0.116 m3/s
80
But, QpipeSR1 = 0.2314 m3/s (from below table)
So, according to continuity equation, which can be seen as shown in below image,
Fig 5.13 Law of Continuity

Total QpipeSR2 = QpipeSR1 - QpipeCCP1 + QpipeSR2
= 0.2314 - 0.115 + 0.116
= 0.2324 m3/s
Now, diameter of pipe required is given as
0.3107 8 1
0.2324 = ∗ 𝐷3 ∗ ( )0.5
0.011 150
Therefore, D = 0.422 m
And we will provide D as 0.45 m.
So, velocity of flow in pipe (V) = Q/A
V = 0.2324 / ((π/4)*0.452)
V = 1.46 m/s
Which is less than peak velocity assumed as 1.6 m/s, so O.K.
For concrete pipe, too, the calculations remains the same, except for the fact, peak velocity
assumed for the flow in pipe is 3 m/s. Rest all steps remain the same. The detailed calculations are
presented in the below tables.
81
Total
Area of
Run Discha Veloci
Intensit sub- Discharg Diame Diame
off Longitud Area of Discha rge ty of
y catchm e (q) Manning’s ter of ter of Area
Pipe Length Coe inal sub- rge (q) in the Flow
(i) ent =10*k*i* Roughness Pipe Pipe of pipe
No. (m) ffici Slope of catchment (m3/se pipe in
(mm/hr (A)(in A Coefficient Requir Provid (m2)
ent Pipe (S) (in m2) c) Pipe
) hectare (m3/hr) ed (m) ed (m)
(k) (m3/se (m/s)
s)
c)
SR1 68.365 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1917.25 0.1917 833.1227 0.2314 0.2314 0.011 0.4222 0.45 0.1591 1.4545
SR2 23.75 0.95 0.006667 457.411 961.092 0.0961 417.6334 0.1160 0.2324 0.011 0.4229 0.45 0.1591 1.4609
SR3 23.2 0.95 0.006667 457.411 960.792 0.0961 417.5030 0.1160 0.2334 0.011 0.4236 0.45 0.1591 1.4671
SR4 22.154 0.95 0.006667 457.411 958.155 0.0958 416.3571 0.1157 0.2341 0.011 0.4241 0.45 0.1591 1.4713
SR5 21.09 0.95 0.006667 457.411 955.21 0.0955 415.0774 0.1153 0.2344 0.011 0.4243 0.45 0.1591 1.4732
SR6 20.13 0.95 0.006667 457.411 952.714 0.0953 413.9928 0.1150 0.2344 0.011 0.4243 0.45 0.1591 1.4733
SR7 19.63 0.95 0.006667 457.411 959.1966 0.0959 416.8097 0.1158 0.2352 0.011 0.4248 0.45 0.1591 1.4783
SR8 18.815 0.95 0.006667 457.411 951.2271 0.0951 413.3467 0.1148 0.2350 0.011 0.4247 0.45 0.1591 1.4772
SR9 20.083 0.95 0.006667 457.411 924.9541 0.0925 401.9300 0.1116 0.2317 0.011 0.4224 0.45 0.1591 1.4562
SR10 41.98 0.95 0.006667 457.411 547.635 0.0548 237.9696 0.0661 0.1828 0.011 0.3865 0.45 0.1591 1.1490
SR11 51.56 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1897.67 0.1898 824.6144 0.2291 0.2291 0.011 0.4206 0.45 0.1591 1.4397
SR12 33.2 0.95 0.006667 457.411 932.57 0.0933 405.2394 0.1126 0.2266 0.011 0.4189 0.45 0.1591 1.4244
SR13 22.46 0.95 0.006667 457.411 961.5 0.0962 417.8106 0.1161 0.2277 0.011 0.4197 0.45 0.1591 1.4312
SR14 20.09 0.95 0.006667 457.411 961.47 0.0961 417.7976 0.1161 0.2288 0.011 0.4204 0.45 0.1591 1.4379
SR15 38.785 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1754.15 0.1754 762.2491 0.2117 0.2117 0.011 0.4084 0.45 0.1591 1.3308
SR16 33.5 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1906.0993 0.1906 828.2772 0.2301 0.2301 0.011 0.4213 0.45 0.1591 1.4461
SR17 15.59 0.95 0.006667 457.411 956.82 0.0957 415.7770 0.1155 0.2306 0.011 0.4217 0.45 0.1591 1.4492
SR18 12.41 0.95 0.006667 457.411 961 0.0961 417.5934 0.1160 0.2316 0.011 0.4224 0.45 0.1591 1.4556
SR19 15.07 0.95 0.006667 457.411 957 0.0957 415.8552 0.1155 0.1879 0.011 0.3905 0.45 0.1591 1.1810
SR20 15.98 0.95 0.006667 457.411 959.23 0.0959 416.8242 0.1158 0.1874 0.011 0.3901 0.45 0.1591 1.1776
SR21 16.9 0.95 0.006667 457.411 958.36 0.0958 416.4462 0.1157 0.1866 0.011 0.3895 0.45 0.1591 1.1726
82
SR22 17.75 0.95 0.006667 457.411 941 0.0941 408.9026 0.1136 0.1859 0.011 0.3889 0.45 0.1591 1.1683
SR23 18.93 0.95 0.006667 457.411 938.26 0.0938 407.7119 0.1133 0.1873 0.011 0.3900 0.45 0.1591 1.1771
SR24 21.42 0.95 0.006667 457.411 955.67 0.0956 415.2773 0.1154 0.1890 0.011 0.3914 0.45 0.1591 1.1880
SR25 16.65 0.95 0.006667 457.411 761.46 0.0761 330.8852 0.0919 0.1887 0.011 0.3911 0.45 0.1591 1.1857
SR27 44.66 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1849.94 0.1850 803.8738 0.2233 0.2233 0.011 0.4166 0.45 0.1591 1.4034
SR28 41.42 0.95 0.006667 457.411 956.04 0.0956 415.4381 0.1154 0.2237 0.011 0.4169 0.45 0.1591 1.4060
SR29 64.47 0.95 0.006667 457.411 956.15 0.0956 415.4859 0.1154 0.1517 0.011 0.3604 0.45 0.1591 0.9536
SR30 37.4 0.95 0.006667 457.411 960.16 0.0960 417.2284 0.1159 0.1513 0.011 0.3600 0.45 0.1591 0.9509
SR31 32.02 0.95 0.006667 457.411 955.52 0.0956 415.2121 0.1153 0.1504 0.011 0.3592 0.45 0.1591 0.9452
SR32 28.86 0.95 0.006667 457.411 959.35 0.0959 416.8764 0.1158 0.1500 0.011 0.3589 0.45 0.1591 0.9430
SR33 29.75 0.95 0.006667 457.411 958.5 0.0959 416.5070 0.1157 0.1492 0.011 0.3582 0.45 0.1591 0.9379
SR34 40.14 0.95 0.006667 457.411 958.6 0.0959 416.5505 0.1157 0.1485 0.011 0.3575 0.45 0.1591 0.9335
SR35 60.83 0.95 0.006667 457.411 749.78 0.0750 325.8097 0.0905 0.1478 0.011 0.3569 0.45 0.1591 0.9289
SR36 34.79 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1427.32 0.1427 620.2283 0.1723 0.1723 0.011 0.3780 0.45 0.1591 1.0828
SR37 27.59 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1912.77 0.1913 831.1759 0.2309 0.2309 0.011 0.4219 0.45 0.1591 1.4511
SR38 78.66 0.95 0.006667 457.411 960.9 0.0961 417.5499 0.1160 0.2319 0.011 0.4226 0.45 0.1591 1.4574
SR39 45.72 0.95 0.006667 457.411 958.5 0.0959 416.5070 0.1157 0.2326 0.011 0.4230 0.45 0.1591 1.4618
SR40 34.96 0.95 0.006667 457.411 960.55 0.0961 417.3978 0.1159 0.2335 0.011 0.4237 0.45 0.1591 1.4678
SR41 33.77 0.95 0.006667 457.411 953.74 0.0954 414.4386 0.1151 0.2337 0.011 0.4238 0.45 0.1591 1.4687
SR42 34.03 0.95 0.006667 457.411 954.62 0.0955 414.8210 0.1152 0.2339 0.011 0.4239 0.45 0.1591 1.4702
SR43 32.33 0.95 0.006667 457.411 960.9 0.0961 417.5499 0.1160 0.2349 0.011 0.4246 0.45 0.1591 1.4764
SR44 44.77 0.95 0.006667 457.411 951.87 0.0952 413.6260 0.1149 0.2348 0.011 0.4246 0.45 0.1591 1.4759
SR45 119.89 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1808.82 0.1809 786.0055 0.2183 0.2183 0.011 0.4131 0.45 0.1591 1.3723
SR46 34.32 0.95 0.006667 457.411 910.8 0.0911 395.7794 0.1099 0.2133 0.011 0.4095 0.45 0.1591 1.3405
SR47 28.85 0.95 0.006667 457.411 910.9 0.0911 395.8229 0.1100 0.2082 0.011 0.4059 0.45 0.1591 1.3088
SR48 26.63 0.95 0.006667 457.411 910.95 0.0911 395.8446 0.1100 0.2032 0.011 0.4022 0.45 0.1591 1.2772
SR49 26.43 0.95 0.006667 457.411 911 0.0911 395.8663 0.1100 0.1982 0.011 0.3984 0.45 0.1591 1.2456
SR50 27.94 0.95 0.006667 457.411 908.19 0.0908 394.6453 0.1096 0.1928 0.011 0.3943 0.45 0.1591 1.2119
83
SR51 27.25 0.95 0.006667 457.411 901.11 0.0901 391.5687 0.1088 0.1866 0.011 0.3895 0.45 0.1591 1.1728
SR52 32.72 0.95 0.006667 457.411 868.03 0.0868 377.1941 0.1048 0.1764 0.011 0.3814 0.45 0.1591 1.1086
SR53 69.47 0.95 0.006667 457.411 879.27 0.0879 382.0784 0.1061 0.1675 0.011 0.3741 0.45 0.1591 1.0530
SR54 46.5 0.95 0.006667 457.411 910.4 0.0910 395.6056 0.1099 0.1624 0.011 0.3698 0.45 0.1591 1.0209
SR55 16.47 0.95 0.006667 457.411 883.8 0.0884 384.0468 0.1067 0.1490 0.011 0.3580 0.45 0.1591 0.9367
SR56 16.71 0.95 0.006667 457.411 900.75 0.0901 391.4123 0.1087 0.1428 0.011 0.3523 0.45 0.1591 0.8973
SR57 17.45 0.95 0.006667 457.411 911.01 0.0911 395.8707 0.1100 0.1377 0.011 0.3476 0.45 0.1591 0.8657
SR58 10.96 0.95 0.006667 457.411 605.31 0.0605 263.0317 0.0731 0.0958 0.011 0.3034 0.45 0.1591 0.6022
SR59 7.78 0.95 0.006667 457.411 733.23 0.0733 318.6181 0.0885 0.0693 0.011 0.2687 0.45 0.1591 0.4358
SR26 29.53 0.95 0.006667 457.411 910.4 0.0910 395.6056 0.1099 0.1573 0.011 0.3654 0.45 0.1591 0.9889
MR1 111.06 0.95 0.006667 457.411 2383 0.2383 1035.509 0.2876 0.2876 0.011 0.4581 0.5 0.1964 1.4644
MR2 25.06 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1086 0.1086 471.9109 0.1311 0.2623 0.011 0.4425 0.5 0.1964 1.3353
MR3 19.33 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1040.2 0.1040 452.0090 0.1256 0.2314 0.011 0.4222 0.5 0.1964 1.1780
MR4 20.49 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1110 0.1110 482.3399 0.1340 0.2089 0.011 0.4064 0.5 0.1964 1.0637
MR5 24.26 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1092.5 0.1093 474.7354 0.1319 0.1844 0.011 0.3877 0.5 0.1964 0.9386
MR6 30.98 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1092.76 0.1093 474.8484 0.1319 0.1598 0.011 0.3675 0.5 0.1964 0.8137
MR7 60.35 0.95 0.006667 457.411 803.66 0.0804 349.2228 0.0970 0.1004 0.011 0.3087 0.5 0.1964 0.5111
MR8 43.24 0.95 0.006667 457.411 2350 0.2350 1021.170 0.2837 0.2837 0.011 0.4557 0.5 0.1964 1.4441
MR9 12.21 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1236 0.1236 537.0920 0.1492 0.2764 0.011 0.4513 0.5 0.1964 1.4072
MR10 8.32 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1242 0.1242 539.6992 0.1499 0.2699 0.011 0.4473 0.5 0.1964 1.3739
MR11 9.05 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1228 0.1228 533.6157 0.1482 0.2617 0.011 0.4421 0.5 0.1964 1.3321
MR12 8.54 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1272 0.1272 552.7355 0.1535 0.2588 0.011 0.4403 0.5 0.1964 1.3173
MR13 13.97 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1272 0.1272 552.7355 0.1535 0.2559 0.011 0.4384 0.5 0.1964 1.3025
MR14 19.45 0.95 0.006667 457.411 610 0.0610 265.0697 0.0736 0.1730 0.011 0.3786 0.5 0.1964 0.8810
MR15 33.72 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1093 0.1093 474.9527 0.1319 0.1173 0.011 0.3273 0.5 0.1964 0.5974
MR16 18.02 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1122 0.1122 487.5544 0.1354 0.1378 0.011 0.3476 0.5 0.1964 0.7014
MR17 14.41 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1082.89 0.1083 470.5595 0.1307 0.1535 0.011 0.3620 0.5 0.1964 0.7815
MR18 11.16 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1052.17 0.1052 457.2104 0.1270 0.1655 0.011 0.3724 0.5 0.1964 0.8426
84
MR19 9.82 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1072.88 0.1073 466.2098 0.1295 0.1800 0.011 0.3843 0.5 0.1964 0.9165
MR20 12.44 0.95 0.006667 457.411 772.68 0.0773 335.7607 0.0933 0.0933 0.011 0.3003 0.5 0.1964 0.4748
MR21 124.81 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1126 0.1126 489.2925 0.1359 0.1940 0.011 0.3952 0.5 0.1964 0.9875
MR22 38.23 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1171.82 0.1172 509.2032 0.1414 0.2204 0.011 0.4146 0.5 0.1964 1.1222
MR23 37.53 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1023 0.1023 444.5349 0.1235 0.2289 0.011 0.4205 0.5 0.1964 1.1654
MR24 96.32 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1193.22 0.1193 518.5024 0.1440 0.2580 0.011 0.4398 0.5 0.1964 1.3133
MR25 146.8 0.95 0.006667 457.411 2482 0.2482 1078.529 0.2996 0.2996 0.011 0.4652 0.5 0.1964 1.5252
MR26 33.162 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1222 0.1222 531.0084 0.1475 0.2907 0.011 0.4599 0.5 0.1964 1.4797
MR27 28.25 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1223.82 0.1224 531.7993 0.1477 0.2819 0.011 0.4547 0.5 0.1964 1.4353
MR28 26.15 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1215.62 0.1216 528.2361 0.1467 0.2722 0.011 0.4488 0.5 0.1964 1.3859
MR29 26.46 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1218 0.1218 529.2703 0.1470 0.2628 0.011 0.4429 0.5 0.1964 1.3379
MR30 23.65 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1222 0.1222 531.0084 0.1475 0.2539 0.011 0.4372 0.5 0.1964 1.2924
MR31 24.12 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1222 0.1222 531.0084 0.1475 0.2449 0.011 0.4313 0.5 0.1964 1.2469
MR32 19.54 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1222 0.1222 531.0084 0.1475 0.2360 0.011 0.4253 0.5 0.1964 1.2013
MR33 169.16 0.95 0.006667 457.411 2545 0.2545 1105.905 0.3072 0.3072 0.011 0.4696 0.5 0.1964 1.5639
MR34 36.415 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1272 0.1272 552.7355 0.1535 0.3043 0.011 0.4679 0.5 0.1964 1.5491
MR35 30.3 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1266 0.1266 550.1282 0.1528 0.3007 0.011 0.4658 0.5 0.1964 1.5306
MR36 26.26 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1272 0.1272 552.7355 0.1535 0.2978 0.011 0.4641 0.5 0.1964 1.5159
MR37 23.96 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1270 0.1270 551.8664 0.1533 0.2946 0.011 0.4623 0.5 0.1964 1.4998
MR38 56.22 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1272 0.1272 552.7355 0.1535 0.2917 0.011 0.4605 0.5 0.1964 1.4851
MR39 56.26 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1222 0.1222 531.0084 0.1475 0.2270 0.011 0.4192 0.5 0.1964 1.1558
MR40 29.02 0.95 0.006667 457.411 1220 0.1220 530.1393 0.1473 0.2179 0.011 0.4128 0.5 0.1964 1.1091
MR41 29.8 0.95 0.006667 457.411 925 0.0925 401.9499 0.1117 0.1731 0.011 0.3787 0.5 0.1964 0.8811
MR42 38.89 0.95 0.006667 457.411 667.7 0.0668 290.1427 0.0806 0.0972 0.011 0.3050 0.5 0.1964 0.4949
Table 5.15 Main (MR) and Service (SR) Tile Drain Diameter Computation
85
Runo Longitu Diameter
Diameter Velocity
Concrete ff dinal Manning’s Dischar of Area
Length of Pipe of Flow
Pipe Coeff Slope Roughness Discharge Coming From ge (Q) Pipe of pipe
(m) Required in Pipe
Name icient of Pipe Coefficient (m3/sec) Provided (m2)
(m) (m/s)
(k) (S) (m)
CP1 228.43 0.95 0.01 0.013 SR1 TO SR9 1.1516 0.76 0.9 0.6364 1.8095
CP2 46.94 0.95 0.01 0.013 SR10 0.0661 0.26 0.3 0.0707 0.9348
CP3 51.26 0.95 0.01 0.013 SR11 0.2291 0.42 0.45 0.1591 1.4397
CP4 92.58 0.95 0.01 0.013 SR12 TO SR14, CP1 TO CP3 1.7914 0.90 0.9 0.6364 2.8148
CP5 224.04 0.95 0.01 0.013 SR15 TO SR25 1.4544 0.83 0.9 0.6364 2.2852
CP6 329.04 0.95 0.01 0.013 SR29 TO SR36 0.9566 0.71 0.8 0.5029 1.9024
CP7 85.6 0.95 0.01 0.013 SR27,SR28 0.3387 0.48 0.5 0.1964 1.7243
CP8 10.48 0.95 0.01 0.013 CP6,CP7 1.2953 0.79 0.9 0.6364 2.0353
CP9 345.68 0.95 0.01 0.013 SR37 TO SR44 1.0397 0.73 0.8 0.5029 2.0677
CP10 552.15 0.95 0.01 0.013 SR45 TO SR59, SR26 1.7942 0.90 0.9 0.6364 2.8191
CP11 448.44 0.95 0.01 0.013 MR1 TO MR7, MR15 TO MR19 1.6936 0.88 0.9 0.6364 2.6611
CP12 458.6 0.95 0.01 0.013 MR8 TO MR14, MR20 TO MR24 1.7498 0.89 0.9 0.6364 2.7495
CP13 386.54 0.95 0.01 0.013 MR25 TO MR32, MR39 TO MR42 1.8181 0.90 0.9 0.6364 2.8567
CP14 280.86 0.95 0.01 0.013 MR33 TO MR38 1.0739 0.74 0.8 0.5029 2.1356
Table 5.16 Concrete Pipe Diameter Computation
86
WATER TANKS COMPUTATIONS:
We are designing the water tanks for the (1/10) Th of the maximum annual rainfall occurred
over past 25 years. This is because, the rainfall that we have obtained and shown above is for the
whole Mumbai region and hence, it will be a good choice, to take this rainfall value.
As seen in figure 5.6, there are in all, 2 regions at which tanks are to be provided. One along
Flank road and other at GSB Sports complex. To design water tanks, it is necessary to decide the
design volume. But, we have got till now, only the discharge. Let us now take insights about the
design of each set of tanks.
DESIGN OF Water Tanks:

As seen in figure 5.6 and 5.12, the discharge into the tanks will come from CP1 to CP14, which,
in turn receives water from SR1 to SR59 and from MR1 to MR42. So, total discharge coming into
the tank is
QWT = ∑59 42
𝑖=1 𝑞(𝑆𝑅𝑖) + ∑𝑖=1 𝑞(𝑀𝑅𝑖)
= 49357.97 m3/hr.
Computation of Volume:
Over the past 25 years, the max. Annual rainfall, was observed in the year 2019, which was
5946.69 mm. But, as mentioned above, we will take rainfall as (1/10) Th of this annual rainfall
value, which is 594.669mm. So, we will take annual rainfall value as 600mm for tank volume
computations further. In discharge calculations, we took intensity for each catchment as 457.411
mm/hr, meaning 457.411 mm of rainfall will occur in one hour. Numerically, if we multiply
discharge obtained with a factor, equal to (600/ 457.411), it means that around 600 mm/year of
intensity has been considered in discharge computations. The reason why year has come in the
intensity unit because, around 6000 mm (5946.69 mm to be precise) of rainfall has occurred over
the entire year.
Now, our goal to design these tanks is to store this water, over the entire year of rainfall
(occurring intermittently). So, if time period is taken as 1 year, then from the definition of
discharge,
Q=Volume/Time
Since time is taken as 1 year,
Q1year = Design Volume
So, Design Volume of tanks for WT1 set = QWT1 * (5946.69 / 457.411)
= 49357.97* (600/ 457.411)
= 64744.354 m3
Let us provided tanks 2 tanks, which are rectangular in shape one of which has total length of
700m, width 10 m and depth as 6.2m (including freeboard as 0.2 m) and other which has length
of 86m, width 40m and depth of 7.2 m (including 0.2m free board). These both are connected by
a pipe of 0.4m diameter and length as required. So, effective height of tank will be (7.2-0.2) m =
7m.
87
Volume of both tanks provided (V) = 700*10*6 + 86*40*7
= 66080 m3
So, no of tanks required = (Vrequired / Vprovided) = (64744.354 / 66080)
= 0.980
Therefore, we will provide 2 tanks, whose dimensions are as mentioned above.
So, all the components involved in prototype has been designed.
88
5.10 DIMENSIONS OF COMPONENTS PROVIDED:
The below table represents the dimensions and parameters of components provided:
COMPONENT DIMENSIONS/ PARAMETERS
SERVICE TILE DRAIN(MR):
Concrete Assembly Thickness : 30 mm
Thickness: 200 mm
Precast Perforated Concrete Layer Dia of perforations: 20 mm
c/c distance between perforations: 50 mm
Dia of pipe: 20 mm
Vertical Drainage Pipe
c/c distance between pipe: 50 mm
Mesh / Net Thickness of net = 6mm
Dia of pipe: 0.45m
Service Tile Drain(SR) Pipe Longitudinal slope: 1 in 150
Typical lay length = 20 feet
MAIN TILE DRAIN(MR):
Concrete Assembly Thickness : 30 mm
Thickness: 200 mm
Precast Perforated Concrete Layer Dia of perforations: 20 mm
c/c distance between perforations: 50 mm
Dia of pipe: 20 mm
Vertical Drainage Pipe
c/c distance between pipe: 50 mm
Mesh / Net Thickness of net = 6mm
Dia of pipe: 0.5m
Main Tile Drain(MR) Pipe Longitudinal slope: 1 in 150
Typical lay length = 20 feet
Dia of pipe: 0.25m
CONNECTING PIPE (CCP1)
Longitudinal slope: 1 in 35
Dia of pipe: 0.3m
CONNECTING PIPE (CCP2)
Dia of pipe: 0.9m
CONCRETE PIPE (CP)
Rectangular Tank Having Length = 700m
Width of tank = 10m
WATER TANK ALONG FLANK ROAD
Total Depth of tank = 6.2 m
Freeboard = 0.2 m
Rectangular Tank having Length = 86 m
WATER TANK AT GSB SPORTS Width of tank = 40m
GROUND Total Depth of tank = 7.2 m
Freeboard = 0.2 m
Dia of pipe = 0.4m
CONNECTING PIPES BETWEEN TANKS Total length of this pipe = As required
Longitudinal Slope of this pipe= 1 in 100
Table 5.17 Dimensions of components provided
89
FEASIBILITY OF PROJECT
Sustainable Storm Water Storage System (SSWSS) is project which based on the major
potential impact during floods and confronting water shortage situations during summers. This
model has been taken into account for smaller area and pipes layouts are decided as per the need
to be sufficed for that area. This project can be very curb the storm situations well and it will
help to alleviate the intensified load for existing insufficient drainage system.
The basic problem in the king’s circle region is flooding which creates disturbance in day to
day life of people. So, in order to solve the flooding situation problem and to tackle the disturbance
created, we have tried to provide a feasible solution through the idea in the model, design
calculations for the catchment of the surrounding region.
In the design calculations we have taken the annual rainfall intensity for the last 25 years and
designed the tile drain system for the maximum rainfall. So if it pours heavily and incessantly then
this prospective model will work as splendid solution for the flooding problem and can create
alternative water storage resource.
The tile drain pipes, concrete conveyance pipe provided can handle much large discharge and
the water which is currently accumulating in the low lying or less reduced level regions will never
accumulate and flood like situation will not occur.
The underground storm water storage tanks which we have provided at specific regions have
much more capacity to store the water.
The submersible pump which is provided in each tank will be used for pumping out the stored
storm water. The submersible pump of 10 horsepower is provided and the cast iron pipe of 3-inch
diameter the stored storm water can be pumped out with much more efficiency and within much
less time.
This project can lead towards major infrastructural movement in cities like Mumbai where area
is less and population is more. This project may need heavy investments and good monetary
supports. If this project is implemented well then it may serve over the decades. On large extents,
if this project is implemented then it will even be used for drinking purposes by linking all such
small catchment networks to water treatment plants if it can be processed as per the filtration and
purification process requirements. It may add up to the existing water volume during summers
when mostly water level plunges down drastically.
This project is just like a reform where it comes with temporary pain but it creates hassle free
solution over the long term. Likewise, in this project there would be huge construction activities
like digging, excavation and laying off pipes across the roads. It may create short period of
disruption to daily lifestyle of surrounding residents. But it will help to curb the major issues faced
by people during inundations.
90
FUTURE SCOPE
 Sustainable Storm Water Storage System (SSWSS) is a project designed to be kept mind
for future expansion where flooding occurs frequently in the vulnerable flood prone
regions.
 In future, such models can be tried out with the use of small-scale pumps, reducing
dimensions of components.
 Such projects become effective, especially, during droughts where such stored water will
help to serve the secondary use of water like washing, gardening, irrigating parks and
fields instead of using potable water and many other activities like small scale farming
where irrigation is required.
 In future, provision of small- treatment plants can also be tried out near such storage
locations, for better purity of water.
 The idea of underground storage in cities, is still new, but a concept, which has been seen
successful over centuries in the form of wells, tube wells, bore wells and many more. It
needs good research to come up much better sustainable solution.
In short, Sustainable Storm water Storage System, is an idea, which has great potential in future,
given the changing global climatic pattern, temperature, wind and tidal variations and many more.
This topic has great untapped potential, which needs to be tapped, and our project is one such step
towards it.
91
LIMITATION OF PROJECT
Based on the design and some physical parameters, this project has some limitations. There
various factors which gets into account when project is lead into real life circumstances and by
surpassing these difficulties project can be implemented well as per the desired efficiency.
 Accumulation of waste materials which may cause clogging near the sides of camber where
mesh is provided over tile drains.
 Providing slope of pipes against reducing levels.
 Complex pipe networks and heavy construction activities.
 Heavy investments and monetary support.
92
CONCLUSION
On the basis of the designed model, proposed catchment area and its prototype/layout of the
plan, design calculations for the design discharge, we can say that the project can be implemented
on the large scale.
By taking into consideration the design discharge, total catchment area, position of the flood
prone zone, the model can be designed by taking the variables such as design discharge, velocity,
intensity of the rainfall, etc.
By calculating the design discharge coming to each junction, the intensity of the rainfall, we
can calculate the required diameter of each pipe and then can decide the provided diameter of the
pipe based on the requirements.
As per the design calculations we can say that the project can be considered for future expansion
and its long term efficiency can be enhanced by implementing it on a large scale at the flood prone
zones and at places where flooding occurs every year. Depending on the catchment area, discharge,
the model can be designed by deciding the catchment area based on reduced levels, intensity of
rainfall and accordingly the position of underground storm water storage tanks can be fixed
depending on the area available, reduced level of the different regions.
93
REFERENCES LIST
 https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/trends/mumbai-lost-rs-14000-cr-to-floods-
between-2005-and-2015-study-4425241.html
 https://m.economictimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/mangroves-destruction-
unplanned-construction-to-blame-for-flooding-in-mumbai-
experts/amp_articleshow/77387436.cms
 https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/140-year-old-drainage-system-highest-
rain-since-74-why-south-mumbai-flooded-6543260/lite/
 https://m.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/how-to-make-mumbai-flood-proof-and-
flood-ready/story-p2krTOU61SJx7wkXdduuMM_amp.html
 https://thewire.in/environment/mumbai-monsoon-disruption
 https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/haphazard-land-reclamation-fuelled-mumbais-
maximum--dreams-
40745#:~:text=Large%20parts%20of%20Mumbai%20is,300%20year%20history%20of
%20reclamations.&text=The%20study%20is%20an%20ongoing,Transformation%20Sup
port%20Unit%20(MTSU)
 https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/hindmata-flooding-bmc-plans-deep-
tunnelling-6549450/
 https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/kalanagar-model-a-success-civic-body-
plans-mini-pumping-stations-at-chronic-flooding-spots-6692739/
 https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/asia-pacific/mumbai-struggles-to-recover-from-
worst-flooding-in-14-years-1.3945355
 https://www.firstpost.com/india/despite-hundreds-of-crores-spent-on-desilting-why-
mumbai-could-still-see-flooding-this-monsoon-8534601.html
 https://weather.com/en-IN/india/monsoon/news/2020-07-26-15-years-on-july-26-evokes-
the-horrors-of-monsoon-fury-for-mumbai
 https://mitkatadvisory.com/blogs/mitkat-advisory/mumbai-floods-2005-to-2017
 https://www.rainharvesting.co.uk/what-does-an-underground-rainwater-harvesting-
system-tank-actually-do/
 http://www.unido.or.jp/en/technology_db/1658/
 https://www.ktr.mlit.go.jp/edogawa/edogawa00572.html
 https://www.wavin.com/en-en/news-cases/news/10-measures-to-prevent-urban-flooding
 https://web-japan.org/trends/11_tech-life/tec130312.html
 https://www.water-technology.net/projects/g-cans-project-tokyo-japan/
 https://www.chinadailyhk.com/articles/19/146/167/1498458615061.html
 https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/japan-flood-control-superstructure-china-tokyo/
 https://www.japanvisitor.com/japan-city-guides/kasukabe-underground-flood-protection-
tank
 https://telanganatoday.com/japans-underground-flood-control-tunnel
94
 https://scroll.in/article/970509/mumbai-floods-every-year-during-monsoon-so-why-is-
this-year-different
 https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/japan-flood-control-superstructure-china-
tokyo/#:~:text=Two%20massive%20construction%20projects%20protect,ever%2Dprese
nt%20threat%20of%20floods.&text=Tokyo's%20full%20flood%20control%20system,na
tion%20earned%20through%20hard%20experience
 https://www.thequint.com/news/india/mumbai-floods-drainage-system-bmc
 http://forestsclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/Addinfo/0_0_1112123912121BRIMSTOWA
DreportonStormWaterDrainage.pdf
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihanmumbai_Storm_Water_Disposal_System
 “Sustainable Underground Water Drainage System for Mumbai City” by Manasi N.
Bobade, Shubham D. Dolas, Arti A. Gadgul, Mahesh R. Gurme, Dr. Alka S. Kote, Dr.
D.Y.Patil Institute of Technology, Pimpri.
 http://www.udri.org/wp-
content/uploads/Mumbai%20Reader/MR%2018/15%20Storm%20Water%20Drainage%2
0in%20Mumbai_Subrata%20Bhattacharjee.pdf
 https://earth.org/sponge-cities-could-be-the-answer-to-impending-water-crisis-in-china/
 “Case studies of the Sponge City Program in China” by Xiaoning Li, Junqi Li, Xing
Fang, Yongwei Gong, Wenliang Wang.
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponge_city
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ypr6E23nuU
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rp2l6nFIsZA
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Area_Outer_Underground_Discharge_Chann
el
 https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20181129-the-underground-cathedral-protecting-
tokyo-from-floods
 Research paper on “The Exposure, Vulnerability, and Ability to Respond of Poor
Households to Recurrent Floods in Mumbai”
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260035219_Adaptation_to_climate_change_in_
urban_water_management_-_flood_management_in_the_Rotterdam_Rijnmond_Area
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability
 http://www.understandconstruction.com/waterproofing-membranes.html
 https://www.ehow.com/how_6833903_fasten-pvc-pipe-concrete-pipe.html
 https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/drainage-nets-1612973988.html
 https://parkenterpriseconstruction.com/2020/07/06/what-material-is-best-for-storm-
sewer-pipes/
 https://indiawris.gov.in/wris/#/rainfall
 https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/105101010/downloads/Lecture32.pdf
 “Manual on Storm water Drainage systems, Vol-I Part A- Engineering Design” by
Ministry on Housing and Urban Affairs”
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tile_drainage
95
 https://www.sketchup.com/products/sketchup-pro
 https://www.google.com/earth/download/gep/agree.html?hl=en-GB
 https://map.igismap.com/
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1&ds_rl=1233896&cjevent=Cj0KCQjw78yFBhCZARIsAOxgSx0bOTfhlHuX9rrjD-
rUwv1yo5gLvRWj1PwbiYv1ecP12kMWeEyqCsMaAhKMEALw_wcB&click_id=Cj0K
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Qjw78yFBhCZARIsAOxgSx0bOTfhlHuX9rrjD-
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gclid=Cj0KCQjw78yFBhCZARIsAOxgSx0bOTfhlHuX9rrjD-
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 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1018363911000572
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ks6b-1020.html
96

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B.Tech Civil Project Report SEM VIII

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SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

B.Tech Civil Project Report SEM VIII

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Dr. A.R.Kambekar EXTERNAL EXAMINER

(Gundu Hari Srinivas)

(Patil Kaustubh Anil)

(Pimple Vishad Arvind)

(Brahmankar Aniket Arvind)

(Sawardekar Varad Vinod)

(Kawale Sumit Balaji)

We would also like to thank

 Mr. Pranjal Patil, Assistant Executive Engineer, PWD Nanded

Fig No. Name Page no.

Table no. Name Page No.

1.2 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES:

1.3 PROSPECTED OUTCOMES:

2.1 PROBLEMS FACED BY PEOPLE:

2.2.1 DIVERGENT TERRAIN AND GEOGRAPHY:

Fig 2.1: Mumbai’s Divergent Terrain & Geography

2.2.2 INCREASING RAINFALL IN THE REGION:

2.2.3 ENCROACHMENT OF LAND AND CONTAMINATION ALONG

2.2.4 DIMINISHING OF MANGROVES:

2.2.5 INSUFFICIENT & INEFFICIENT DRAINAGE SYSTEM:

Source: Google Fig 2.4: Concretization of Roads

2.2.7 IMPROPER STORAGE OF RAINWATER:

Study Criteria and Methodology Adopted:

Return Duration in hours

2.5.1 BACKGROUND RESEARCH:

 Pollutant removal efficiency of Rain gardens and problems in its application.

 Multi-function detention facility, with stormwater detention tank performance evaluation.

Fig 2.7 China’s Sponge City Concept

Fig 2.11: Floating pavilion in Rijnhaven in Rotterdam

2.7.1 G-CANS PROJECT:

CONCEPT OF G-CANS CONSTRUCTION:

Fig 2.12: Mechanism of G-Cans Project

2.7.2 FURUKAWA UNDERGROUND REGULATING RESERVOIR:

Fig 2.15 Flood Prone Study Area (Using Q-GIS Software)

Emphasizing the issue

Understanding problems faced by people

Assessing factors responsible

Evaluating the present system & its insufficiency

Emphasizing the need of SSWSS

Reviewing the case studies of similar concepts

Form an opinion of problems faced by people through survey

Developing a model based on SSWSS

Determining the dimensions of individual components

Assessing its suitability, in terms of performance, feasibility, cost implications

Suggesting alternative measures to curb inundations 32

2. After floods, water gets entered into your homes.

3. You have to come across water logging due to continuous rains .

5. Power failures are caused due to heavy rains.

8. There are some open exposed manholes in these areas.

9. You have witnessed property damage in your locality, during floods .

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO TILE DRAIN SYSTEM:

Fig 4.1 Tile Drain System

Source: 3D model drawn on Sketchup software

Fig 4.3 Service Tile Drain Assembly

VERTICAL DRAINAGE PIPE:

SERVICE TILE DRAIN PIPE:

4.2.2 MAIN TILE DRAIN:

Source: 3D model drawn on Sketchup software

Fig 4.5 Main Tile Drain Assembly

4.2.3 CONCRETE CONVEYANCE PIPE / CONCRETE FLOW PIPE:

4.2.4 CONNECTING PIPES: