Institute of Technology

Department of Food Engineering

Mechanical Unit Operations

(FENG 3061)

Gelebo R. (MSc. Food

Engineering)
2022, 1st Semester
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO UNIT OPERATION

1.1 Terms, definitions and Basic Principles of Food Process

Engineering
1.2 Classifications of mechanical unit operation and Unit Operations

 Objectives
 To understand basic concepts related to food engineering
discipline;
 To introduce the different unit operations;
 To be able to classify the different mechanical unit operation
 To be able to classify the different unit operations 2
 TERMS,
 What do we mean by the course title?
 Unit: single, individual, separate

 Operations: Set of activities

 Food: something that we eat

 Processing: To carry out different operations on food for various

aspects.
=>Unit operations are aConversion
Industrial basic step Processes
in a process which
Involves involves physical change
change
or chemical transformation. of
Useful Products
Raw Materials & wastes
Through

A series of Unit Operations

3

Q. What do we need to study this course?

 Definitions and Basic principles of food process engineering

 Process is the set of activities or industrial operations that modify

the properties of raw materials
 with the purpose of obtaining products to satisfy the needs of a
society.
 Such modifications of natural raw materials are directed to
obtain products
 with greater acceptance in the market, or with better
possibilities of storage and transport.

4
 Basic principles… Cont.

 Food Engineering:
 is a multi-disciplinary field which combines Microbiology,
Applied physical science, chemistry, and Engineering for food and
related industries.
 Food process engineering is
 the part of human activity in which the knowledge of physical,
natural, and economic sciences is applied to agricultural products
as related to their composition, energetic content, or physical state.

 The science of conceiving, calculating, designing, building, and

running the facilities where the transformation processes of 5
agricultural products, at the industrial level and as economically
as possible, are carried out.
 Basic principles… Cont.

 The main objective of food process engineering is

 to study the principles and laws governing the

 physical,

 chemical, or

 biochemical stages of different processes, and the apparatus or

equipment by which such stages are industrially carried out.

6
 Basic principles… Cont.
Flow Charts of Some Food Processes:
 Food processes are usually schematized by means of flow charts.
 These are diagrams of all processes that indicate different manufacturing
steps, as well as the flow of materials and energy in the process.
 There are different types of flow charts; the most common use “blocks”
or “rectangles.”
 In these charts each stage of the process is represented by a block or
rectangle connected by arrows to indicate the way in which the materials
flow. 7

 The stage represented is written within the rectangle

 Basic principles… Cont.
 Fig 1: Flow charts for the Extraction of Olive Oil

8
Fig 2: Flow charts for the Production of Fruit Concentrated Juice

9
Fig 3: Flow charts for the Elaboration of Soluble Coffee

10
 Basic principles … Cont.
 Steady and unsteady state process:

 A system is said to be under steady state when all the physical

variables remain constant and invariable along time, at any point
of the system; however, they may be different from one point to
another.

 When the characteristics intensive variable of the operation varies

through the system at a given moment and the variable
corresponding to each system’s point vary along time, the state is
called unsteady.

 The physical variables to consider may be mechanical or 11

thermodynamic.
 Among the formers are volume, velocity, etc.,
 Basic principles … Cont.
 The operation carried out in the industrial processes may be
performed in three different ways
✓ Batch (Discontinuous) operations
✓ Continuous operations
✓ Semi-continuous operations

 In a batch operation the raw material is loaded in the equipment;

 thereafter performing the required transformation, the
obtained products are unloaded.

12
 Basic principles … Cont.
 Steps in batch operation:
 Loading of equipment with raw materials
 Preparation of conditions for transformation
 Required transformation
 Unloading products
 Cleaning equipment’s

 The batch operations take place under an unsteady state, since its
intensive properties vary along time.
=> Example: Crushing of oily seeds to obtain oil.

13
 Basic principles … Cont.
 In continuous operations the loading, transformation, and
unloading stages are performed simultaneously.
 Equipment cleaning is carried out every given time, depending on
the nature of the processes and the material used.
 To carry out the cleaning, production must be stopped.

 Continuous operation takes place under steady state, in such away

that the characteristics intensive variables of the operation may vary
at each point of the system but do not vary along time.

 It is difficult to run an absolute steady state, since there may be

some unavoidable fluctuations.
=> Example: pasta production, tomato sauce, etc. 14
 Basic principles … Cont.

 In some cases, it is difficult to have a continuous operation; this type

of operations is called semi-continuous.
 A Semi-continuous operation may occur by loading some material
in the equipment that will remain there for a given time in a
discontinuous way, while other materials enter or exit continuously.
 Sometimes it is necessary to unload these accumulated materials.
=> Example: In the extraction of oil by solvent, flour is loaded and
the solvent is fed in a continuous way; after some time, the flour
15
runs out of oil and must be replaced.
 Basic principles … Cont.
 Advantage of continuous operation includes:
✓ Loading and unloading stages are eliminated
✓ It allows automation of the operations, thus reducing the
work force
✓ Composition of the product is more uniform
✓ There is better use of thermal energy
 Disadvantage of continuous operation:
 Raw materials should have a uniform composition to avoid
operation fluctuation
 It usually expensive to start the operation, so stops should be
avoided
 Fluctuation in product demand require availability of
considerable quantities of raw material and product in stock.
16
 Due to automation of operations, equipment’s are more
expensive and delicate.
 Basic principles … Cont.
 Continuous operation is performed under un unsteady state during
starts and stops, but once adequately running, may be considered to
be working under steady state.
 This is not completely true, however, since there could be fluctuation
due to variation in the composition of raw materials and due to
modification of external agents.

 When selecting a form of operation, the advantage of each type

should be considered.
 However, when low productions are required, it is recommended to
work under discontinuous conditions.
 When high productions are required, it is more profitable to operate
in a continuous way. 17
 There are differentoftypes
1.2Classifications UnitofOperations
unit operations depending on the nature of the
transformation performed; thus,:

 Physical stages: grinding, sieving, mixture, fluidization, sedimentation,

flotation, filtration, rectification, absorption, extraction, adsorption, heat
exchange, evaporation, drying, etc.
 Chemical stages: refining, chemical peeling
 Biochemical stages: fermentation, sterilization, pasteurization, enzymatic
peeling

 Hence, the group of physical, chemical, and biochemical stages that take place in
the transformation processes of agricultural products constitute the so-called unit
operations of the food industry,
 The purpose of which is the
 separation of two or more substances present in a mixture, or
 the exchange of a property due to a gradient.
18
 Separation is achieved by means of a separating agent that is different, depending
on the transferred property.
 Unit operations can Cont.
Classifications… be classified into different groups depending on
the transferred property, since the possible changes that a body may
undergo are defined by variations in either its mass, energy, or
velocity.

 Thus, unit operations are classified under mass transfer, heat

transfer, or momentum transfer.

 Besides the unit operations considered in each mentioned group, there

exist those of simultaneous heat and mass transfer, as well as other
operations that cannot be classified in any of these groups and are
called complementary unit operations.

 All the unit operations grouped in these sections are found in physical
processes; however, certain operations that include chemical reactions
19

can be included.
A/ Classifications…
Momentum Transfer Unit Operations: These operations study the
Cont.
processes in which two phases at different velocities are in contact.
The operations included in this section are generally divided into three
groups:

 Internal circulation of fluids: study of the movement of fluids through

the interior of the tubing; also includes the study of equipment used to
impel the fluids (pumps, compressors, blowers, and fans) and the
mechanisms used to measure the properties of fluids (diaphragms,
venturi meters, rotameters, etc.).

 External circulation of fluids: the fluid circulates through the external

part of a solid. This circulation includes the flow of fluids through
porous fixed beds, fluidized beds (fluidization), and pneumatic
transport.

 Solids movement within fluids: the base for separation of solids within20

a fluid. This type of separation includes: sedimentation, filtration, and

B/ Heat Transfer Unit
Classifications… Operations: These operations are controlled by
Cont.
temperature gradients.
They depend on the mechanism by which heat is transferred:

 Conduction: in continuous material media, heat flows in the

direction of temperature decrease and there is no macroscopic
movement of mass.

 Convection: the enthalpy flow associated with a moving fluid is

called convective flow of heat. Convection can be natural or
forced.

 Radiation: energy transmission by electromagnetic waves. No

material media are needed for its transmission.
21

Thermal treatments (sterilization and pasteurization), evaporation,

 Classifications… Cont.

B/ Heat Transfer Unit Operations:

Fig 4. Heat transfer mechanisms 22

C/ Mass Transfer Unit
Classifications… Operations: These operations are controlled
Cont.
by the diffusion of a component within a mixture.
 Some of the operations included in this group are:
 Distillation: separation of one or more components by taking advantage
of vapor pressure differences.

 Absorption: a component of a gas mixture is absorbed by a liquid

according to the solubility of the gas in the liquid. Absorption may occur
with or without chemical reaction. The opposite process is called
desorption.

 Extraction: based on the dissolution of a mixture (liquid or solid) in a

selective solvent, which can be liquid–liquid or solid–liquid. The latter is
also called washing, etc.
 Adsorption: also called sorption, adsorption involves the elimination of
one or more components of a fluid (liquid or gas) by retention on the
23
surface of a solid.
D/ Simultaneous HeatCont.
Classifications… -Mass Transfer Unit Operations: In these
operations a concentration and a temperature gradient exist at the
same time:

 Humidification and dehumidification: include the objectives of

humidification and dehumidification of a gas and cooling of a
liquid.

 Crystallization: formation of solid glassy particles within a

homogeneous liquid phase.

 Dehydration:
 Elimination of a liquid contained within a solid. The
application of heat changes the liquid, contained in a solid,
into a vapor phase. 24
 In freeze-drying, the liquid in solid phase is removed by
sublimation, i.e., by changing it into a vapor phase.
 Classifications… Cont.
E/ Complementary Unit Operations: One series of operations is not
included in this classification because these are not based on any of
the transport phenomena cited previously.
These operations include grinding, milling, sieving, mixing of solids
and pastes, etc.

25
 Mechanical Unit Operations
Mechanical Unit Operations are:
 Unit operations that involve physical changing of a material.
 Although this generally refers to a change in size (reduction or
enlargement) or shape.
 Also include separation of a material on the basis of physical or
mechanical properties
 Like: density, size, wettability, etc.
 MUO- mainly deals with handling and processing of solids and solids
in fluids.
Examples:
=> Size reduction, screening are solid-solid handling & processing
=> sedimentation, filtration etc. are solid-liquid handling26 &
processing
 MUO can be classified as:
Particle size and shape analysis:
Eg. Screening or size separation, size reduction etc. (solid-solid
processing)

Particle handling:
Eg. Conveying and storage of solids (solid-solid handling)

Particle dynamics [flow of particle in fluid media]:

Eg. Sedimentation, filtration, packed bed flow etc. (solid-liquid
processing)

Mixing- finding forces and power requirements and mixing 27

efficiency in mixing processes in a single and immiscible phases.

3 Mathematical Setup of the Problems
 The problem setup in the study of unit operations are very diverse,
although in all of them the conservation law (mass, energy,
momentum and stochiometric) of chemical reactions apply.

Applying these laws to a given problem is done to perform a balance

of the “property” studied in such a problem.

 In general way, the expression of the mass, energy and momentum

balances related to the unit time can be expressed as:
 Property entering the system

= Property exiting the system + Property that accumulates or 28

𝐄=𝐒+A
Mathematical Setup of the Problems cont.

 In cases where a chemical reaction exists, when carrying out a

balance for a component, an additional generation term may
appear.
 In these cases, the balance expression will be:
𝐄+𝐆=𝐒+A

29
 ASSIGNMENT I
 Identify all unit operations and classify them into the five groups,
first show each process steps :-
 1: Coffee and Tea Processing Technologies;
 2: Spice & Poultry Processing Technology;
 3: Dairy Processing Technology;
 4: Beverage Processing Technologies;
 5: Meat and Fish Processing Technologies;
and
 6: Edible Oil Processing Technology

Submission Date: Dec. 28, 2022 30

 CHAPTER TWO:

CLASSIFICATIONS OF COARSELY
DISPERSED MATERIAL SYSTEM

2.1 PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY

32
 2. Classifications of coarsely dispersed material system
=> Upon successful studying of this chapter you should be able to:
 Understand and apply the basic methods of characterization of
particles
 Explain the concept and application of particle distribution
 Discuss methods of particle separation in to fractions
 Elaborate particle size analysis and discuss method applied in
size analysis
 Apply particle measurements in process calculations

33
2.1 ParticleTechnology
Particle Technology is the creation and characterization of
particulate solids or the study of particulate solids.
 Particles can be characterized by their:
 composition,
 size &
 Shape
 Composition:- determines such properties like density,
concentration/conductivity provided that the particle is
completely uniform.
 Particle size:- affects properties such as the surface per unit
volume and the settling rate in a fluid
 Particle shape:- determine the handling technique of the
particle.
 Particles are obtained by breaking up a composite solid . 34
 Shape of a particle may be either regular (or) irregular such
as spherical or cubic,
 Cont…
Regular shapes are capable of precise definition by
mathematical equations. Eg. Sphere, cube, cylinder
etc.
Irregular shapes are difficult to define with
mathematical equations. Eg. Sand, clay, gravel etc.
The properties of irregular particles are usually
expressed in terms of some particular characteristics of
a regular shaped particle.

35
 Cont…
 Size and shape are important physical attribute of
foods and food materials.
Þ Used in screening solids to separate foreign materials, grading
of fruits and vegetables, and quality control of foods.
Þ They are also important in fluid flow and heat and mass
transfer calculations.
Þ Affects properties such as the surface per unit volume and the
rate at which a particle will settle in a fluid.
Þ Size of the particulate foods is also critical: particle size of
powdered milk must be large enough to prevent
agglomeration, but small enough to allow rapid
dissolution during reconstitution.
36
 Cont…
Besides, particulate solids present considerably
greater problems than fluids in storage, in removal at a
controlled rate from storage, and when introduced into
vessels or reactors where they become involved in a
process.

 As a result, particle size and shape measurement has been

widely recognized.
 It is easy to specify size for regular particles, but for irregular
particles the term size must be arbitrarily specified.
 Large quantities of particles are handled on the industrial
scale, and it is frequently necessary to define the system as a
whole. 37
 Cont…
 Because, the properties of solids in bulk are a function of the:
 properties of the individual particles including their shapes and
sizes and size distribution, and
 the way in which the particles interact with one another.
 Thus, in place of particle size, it is necessary to know the
distribution of particle sizes in the mixture and
 So, to be able to define a mean size which in some way represents
the behaviour of the particulate mass as a whole, which is called
particle size distribution (PSD).
 It is is the process in which a sample of material that is typically
taken from a production line is examined to identify the
average size of the individual particles.
38
 Cont…
 Size can be determined by different methods:
1. Directly measuring the dimensions by using a micrometer or
caliper. (single particles mst.)

2. Particle size of particulate foods can be determined by sieve

analysis: (systems of particles mst.)
 This is a unit operation in which various sizes of solid particles are separated
into two or more fractions by passing over screen(s).
 Screen is the surface containing a number of equally sized openings. The
openings are square.
 Each screen is identified in meshes per inch. 39

 Mesh is defined as open spaces in a network.

 The smallest mesh means largest clear opening.
Cont…

40
Cont…
Among the standard screens, the Tyler Standard Screen Series
is the most commonly used sieve series (Table 1.2).
 The area of openings in any screen in the series is exactly twice
the openings in the next smaller screen.
 The ratio of actual mesh dimension of any screen to that of the
next smaller screen is √2 = 1.41.
 For closer sizing, intermediate screens are available that have
mesh dimension 1.189 times that of the next smaller
standard screen.
 Since, the particles on any one screen are passed by the screen
immediately ahead of it, two numbers are required to specify
the size range of an increment:
 One for the screen through which the fraction passes and
 The other on which it is retained. 41

 For example, 6/8 refers to the particles passing through the 6-

Cont…

42
 Cont…

 Calculations of average particle size can be done in two different

ways:
 Differential analysis and
 Cumulative analysis.
In differential analysis:
 Mass or number fraction in each size increment is plotted as a
function of average particle size or particle size range.
 The results are often presented as a histogram as shown in Fig.
1.5 with a continuous curve to approximate the distribution.
 The assumption of “all particles in a single fraction are equal
in size” is required
43
Size….
 Particle size was found to be inversely proportional to
dispersion of powder and water holding capacity of
whey protein powder.
 It is easy to specify size for regular particles, but for
irregular particles the term size must be arbitrary
specified.
 Particles are expressed in different units depending on
the size range involved:
✓ Course particles are measured in millimetres
✓ Fine particles are measured in terms of screen
sizes
✓ Very fine particles are measured in terms of 44
screen sizes (micrometres or nanometres)
Size….
 Size can be determined using the projected area method.
 In this method, three characteristic dimensions are
defined:
 Major diameter: the longest dimension of the
maximum projected area
 Intermediate diameter: the minimum diameter of the
maximum projected area or the maximum diameter of
the minimum projected area
 Minor diameter: the shortest dimension of the
minimum projected area
 Length, width and thickness terms are commonly used
that correspond to major, intermediate and minor 45
diameters respectively.
Size….
 The dimension can be measured using a micrometre or
calliper (a simple instrument used to measure distance
between surfaces:
 outside diameter, inside diameter, distance between
parallel surfaces and depth of holes).

 Particle size of a particulate food can be determined by

sieve analysis, passage through an electrically charged
orifice and settling rate methods.
 Particle size analyser is used to determine both size46 of
particles and their state of distribution in production
B/ Shape
 Shapeof food particulate is also important in screening solids to
separate foreign materials, grading of fruit and vegetables,
evaluating the quality of food materials and calculations of heat
and mass transfer.
 The simplest shape of a particle is the sphere in that, because of its
symmetry, any question of orientation does not have to be
considered, since the particle looks exactly the same from
whatever direction it is viewed and behaves in the same manner in
a fluid, irrespective of its orientation.
 No other particle has this characteristic.
 Frequently, the size of a particle of irregular shape is defined in
terms of the size of an equivalent sphere although the particle is
represented by a sphere of different size according to the property
selected. 47

 The shape of food material is usually expressed in terms of its

 SUMMARY OF PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY
 Particles can be characterized by their
 composition,
 size &
 Shape
 Composition:- determines such properties like density,
concentration provided that the particle is completely uniform .
 Particle size:- affects properties such as the surface per unit
volume and the settling rate in a fluid
 Particle shape:- determine the handling technique of the
particle.
 Particles are obtained by breaking up a composite solid .
 Shape of a particle may be either regular (or) irregular such as
spherical or cubic,
 CONT…
 Regular shapes are capable of precise definition by
mathematical equations. Eg. Sphere, cube, cylinder etc.
 Irregular shapes are difficult to define with mathematical
equations. Eg. Sand, clay, gravel etc.
 The properties of irregular particles are usually expressed
in terms of some particular characteristics of a regular
shaped particle.
 PARTICLE SIZE AND SHAPE ANALYSIS/PARTICLE
CHARACTERIZATION
 Particle analysis/ characterization
 Individual solid particles are characterized by their
 size, shape, and density
 Size and shape are easily defined for regular particles like spheres
and cubes and difficult to define for irregular particles
 Therefore some kind of mechanisms and/or models must be
designed to define the shape and size of irregular particles since
most practical operations involve handling of irregular shape
particles
 CONT..

 Particles Analysis/characterization are categorized in to two group for the

seek of understanding, these are:
 Single Particle Shape and Size Analysis
 Mixed Particle Shape and Size analysis
 Particle Shape : The shape of an individual particle is conveniently
expressed in terms of the sphericity ().
 Sphericity is an important parameter used in fluid flow and heat and mass transfer
calculations.

 Sphericity is the ratio of volume of solid to the volume of a sphere that has a diameter
equal to the major diameter of the object so that it can circumscribe the solid sample.
 CONT…
For a spherical particle of diameter Dp, sphericity is equal to 1.

Sphericity=

Assuming that the volume of the solid sample is equal to the volume of the triaxial
ellipsoid which has diameters equivalent to those of the sample, then:
(1.2)
where
= sphericity,
Ve = volume of the triaxial ellipsoid with equivalent diameters (m 3),
Vc = volume of the circumscribed sphere (m3).
 CONT…
In a triaxle ellipsoid, all three perpendicular sections are ellipses (Fig. 1.2). If the major,
intermediate, and minor diameters are 2a, 2b, and 2c, respectively, volume of the triaxial
ellipsoid can be determined from the following equation:
Ve= πabc (1.3)
Then, sphericity is:

(1.4)

Figure 1.2 Triaxial ellipsoid

 CONT…

Table 1.1 Sphericity values for granular

Type of Product materials Φ
Wheat 0.01038
Bean 0.00743
Intact red lentil 0.00641
Chickpea 0.00240
Coarse bulgur 0.01489
Example 1.1. Calculate the sphericity of a cylindrical object of diameter
1.0 cm and height 1.7 cm.
Solution: The volume of the object can be calculated by,
V = πr 2h = π(0.5)2(1.7) = 1.335 cm3
The radius of the sphere (rs ) having this volume can be calculated as:
cm3
rs = 0.683 cm
 CONT..
The surface area of sphere of the same volume as the particle is:
Ss = = 4π(0.683)2 = 5.859 cm2
The surface area of the particle is:
Sp = 2π r (h + r) = 2π (0.5) (1.7 + 0.5) = 6.908 cm2
Then, sphericity is calculated as:
2.2 MIXTURE OF PARTICLES
2.2.1 Particle Size Distribution
 Particles can be separated into fractions by using one of
the following methods:
1. Air elutriation method

2. Settling, sedimentation and centrifuge

3. Screening

2.2.2 Mean Particle Size distribution

(Referees: Engineering properties of food materials)

56
 Cont…
2.3.2 Microscopic Analysis
 The optical microscope may be used to measure particle sizes down to 5
µm.
 For particles smaller than this diffraction causes the edges of the particle
to be blurred and this gives rise to an apparent size.
 The electron microscope may be used for size analysis below 5 µm.

 coupled with image analysis system the optical microscope or electron

microscope can readily give number distributions of size and shape.
 Such systems calculate various diameters from the projected image of
the particles (e.g. Martin’s, Feret’s, shear, projected area diameters, etc.).
 Note that for irregular-shaped particles, the projected area offered to the
viewer can vary significantly depending on the orientation of the
particle. 58

 Techniques such as applying adhesives to the microscope slide may be

 Cont…
2.3.3 Sedimentation
 In this method, the rate of sedimentation of a sample of particles in a
liquid is followed.
 The suspension is dilute and so the particles are assumed to fall at
their single particle terminal velocity in the liquid (usually water).
 Stokes’ law is assumed to apply (𝑅 𝑒𝑝 < 0.3) and so the method using
water is suitable only for particles typically less than 50 µm in
diameter.
 The rate of sedimentation of the particles is followed by plotting the
suspension density at a certain vertical position against time.
 The suspension density is directly related to the cumulative under
size and the time is related to the particle diameter via the terminal
59
velocity.
 The suspension density is sampled at a vertical distance, h below
the surface of the suspension.
 The following assumptions are made:

 The suspension is sufficiently diluted for the particles to settle as

individuals (i.e. not hindered settling).
 Motion of the particles in the liquid obeys Stokes’ law (true
particles typically smaller than 50 µm).
 Particles are assumed to accelerate rapidly to their terminal free
fall velocity 𝑈 𝑇 so that the time for acceleration is negligible.

60
 Measurement of Granulometric State
 1 Screening or Sieving
 Dry sieving using woven wire sieves is a simple, cheap method of size
analysis suitable for particle sizes greater than 45µm.
 sieving gives a mass distribution and a size known as the sieve diameter.
 Since the length of the particle does not hinder its passage through the sieve
apertures (unless the particle is extremely elongated), the sieve diameter is
dependent on the maximum width and maximum thickness of the
particle.
 The most common modern sieves are in sizes such that the ratio of adjacent
sieve sizes is (eg. 45, 53, 63, 75, 90, 107 µm).
 If standard procedures are followed and care is taken, sieving gives reliable
and reproducible size analysis.
 Air jet sieving, in which the powder on the sieve is fluidized by a jet or air,
61
can achieve analysis down to 20 µm.
 Analysis down to 5 µm can be achieved by wet sieving, in which the powder
 Granulometric…
Cont’d
2 Microscopic Analysis
 The optical microscope may be used to measure particle sizes down to 5
µm.
 For particles smaller than this diffraction causes the edges of the particle
to be blurred and this gives rise to an apparent size.
 The electron microscope may be used for size analysis below 5 µm.
coupled with image analysis system, the optical microscope or electron
microscope can readily give number distributions of size and shape.
 Such systems calculate various diameters from the projected image of the
particles (e.g. Martin’s, Feret’s, shear, projected area diameters, etc.).
 Note that for irregular-shaped particles, the projected area offered to the
viewer can vary significantly depending on the orientation of the particle.
 Techniques such as applying adhesives to the microscope slide may be used
62
to ensure that the particles are randomly oriented.
 Granulometric… Cont’d
3. Sedimentation
 Sedimentation can be defined as a unit operation to perform separation of
a suspension into a supernatant clear fluid and dense slurry containing
higher concentration of solids.
 In a more convenient manner, it should be established that the settling of
solids of a suspension in sedimentation is due to gravity force, and
industrial sedimentation can be described as the gravitational settling of
solids suspended in liquids.
 The uses of sedimentation in industry fall Particle sedimentation techniques
can involve the use of a screen if the particle size is relatively large.
 For smaller particles, the particles in the slurry can settle naturally due
to the gravity in large tanks.
 For continuous settling operations, a thickener is employed.
63
 Solids settle into the conical bottom and are directed to a central outlet
using a series of revolving rakes.
Granulometric…
Cont’d
 Clear liquid is discharged from the top of the thickener. is referred to
as clarification.
 The suspension is dilute and so the particles are assumed to fall at
their single particle terminal velocity in the liquid (usually water).
 Stokes’ law is assumed to apply (𝑅 𝑒𝑝 < 0.3) and so the method using
water is suitable only for particles typically less than 50 µm in
diameter.
 The rate of sedimentation of the particles is followed by plotting the
suspension density at a certain vertical position against time.
 The suspension density is directly related to the cumulative under size
and the time is related to the particle diameter via the terminal
velocity.
64
 Sedimentation can be done either Anderson Pipette or
hydrometer method.
Granulometric…
Cont’d
 At time t all those particles travelling faster than will have fallen
below the sampling point.
 The sample at time t will therefore consist only of particles traveling a
velocity ≤ ,

 Thus, equating v with , we determine the diameter of the particle

traveling at our cut-off velocity ,. That is,

65
 E.g. 1: Spherical particles of density 2500 kg/m3 and in the size range 20
- 100 μm are fed continuously into a stream of water (density, 1000
kg/m3 and viscosity, 0.001 Pa s) flowing upwards in a vertical, large
diameter pipe. What maximum water velocity is required to ensure that
no particles of diameter greater than 60 μm are carried upwards with
water?
Solution
Þ Assuming Stokes Law applies for the 60μm particles,

Check Re, R = 0.177

66
Þ Rep < 0.3, and so the assumption of Stokes Law is valid.
Þ Hence, maximum water velocity = 2.94 mm/s
Granulometric…
Cont’d

4. Permeametry
 This is a method of size analysis based on fluid flow through a packed
bed.
 When a fluid is passed upwards through a bed of particles the pressure loss
in the fluid due to frictional resistance increases with increasing fluid flow.
 A point is reached when the upward drag force exerted by the fluid on the
particles is equal to the apparent weight of particles in the bed.
 At this point the particles are lifted by the fluid, the separation of the
particles increases, and the bed becomes fluidized.
 The force balance across the fluidized bed dictates that the fluid pressure
loss across the bed of particles is equal to the apparent weight of the
particles per unit area of the bed. Thus:
Pressure drop 68
 Granulometric…
Cont’d
Laminar Flow
 In the 19th Darcy (1856) observed that the flow of water through a packed
bed of sand was governed by the relationship:
(Pressure gradient) (liquid velocity) or U
 Where, U is the superficial fluid velocity through the bed, is the frictional
pressure drop across a bed depth h.
U=
 The flow of a fluid through a packed bed of solid particles may be analysed
in terms of the fluid flow through tubes.
 The starting point is the Hagen–Poiseuille equation for laminar flow
through a tube:
= where, where D is the tube diameter and μ is the fluid viscosity.
69
 Granulometric…
Cont’d
Laminar Flow
 For laminar flow through a randomly packed bed of monosized spheres of diameter
(d ) (for which S = ) the Carman – Kozeny equation becomes:
This below equ. is for Re < 1

= 180 * …………………equ 1

Re or Re

Where, is the packed bed void fraction,

 When dealing with non-spherical particles with a distribution of sizes, the
appropriate mean diameter for this equation is the surface-volume diameter d̅𝑆𝑉, which
may be calculated as the arithmetic mean of the surface distribution, d𝑎s.
70
 In this method, the pressure gradient across a packed bed of known voidage is
measured as a function of surface flow rate. The diameter we calculate from the
 Granulometric…
Cont’d
Turbulent Flow
 For turbulent flow through a randomly packed bed of monosized spheres of
diameter d the equivalent equation is: This below equ. is for Re > 103
Burke Plummre Equation
= 1.75* …………….equ 2

71
Granulometric…
Cont’d
Fluidization
 Pressure drop is stated:
= g * (p - ) ……………… Equ 3

General Equation for Turbulent and Laminar Flow

 Ergun’s equation additively combines the laminar and turbulent components of the pressure
gradient. This below equ. is for 1 <Re < 103 or transition region

= 150 * + 1.75* ………Equ 4

= 150 * + 1.75* = g * (p - )

72
= 150 * + 1.75* = g * (p - ) …Equ 5
 Granulometric…
Cont’d

 E.g. 1: A cylindrical packed bed of height 1m is filled with equal

sized spherical particles. The particles are non porous and have a
density of 1500kg/m3. the void fraction of the bed is 0.45. The bed is
fluidized using air (density is 1kg/m3) if the acceleration due to gravity
is 9.81 m/s2 , the pressure drop in Pascal across the bed at the incipient
of fluidization is?

 E.g. 2: A bed of spherical glass bead is to be fluidized by a liquid of

density 1000kg/m3 and viscosity 0.1 pa sec. Assume that the Reynolds
number based on particle diameter is small compered to one and g =
10m/s2, and the diameter of the particle 1mm, void friction 0.5 and
particle density is 3000kg/m3, then the minimum velocity in m/s
required to fluidize the bed is? 73
 Granulometric…
Cont’d

 E.g. 3: 1.28g of a powder of particle density 2500 kg/ m3 are charged

into the cell of an apparatus for measurement of particle size and
specific surface area by permeametry. The cylindrical cell has a
diameter of 1.14 cm and the powder forms a bed of depth 1 cm. Dry
air of density 1.2 kg/ m3 and viscosity 18.4*10-6 Pa s flows at a rate of
36 cm3/min through the powder (in a direction parallel to the axis of
the cylindrical cell) and producing a pressure difference of 100 mm of
water across the bed. Determine the surface-volume mean diameter
and the specific surface of the powder sample?
=> “And use Ergun equ to find dsv =? (18.3μm) and specific surface
= 131 m2/kg)”
74
Granulometric…
Cont’d

 E.g. 4: A packed bed of solids of density 2000 kg/m3 occupies a

depth of 0.6 m in a cylindrical vessel of inside diameter 0.1 m. The
mass of solids in the bed is 5 kg and the surface - volume mean
diameter of the particles is 300 μm. Water (density 1000 kg/m3 and
viscosity 0.001 Pa s) flows upwards through the bed.
a) What is the voidage of the packed bed?

b) Calculate the frictional superficial liquid velocity at which the

pressure drop across the bed is 4130 Pa?
[Answer: (a) 0.4692; (b) 1.5 mm/s (Ergun)]

75
 Granulometric…
Cont’d
5.Electrozone Sensing
 Particles are held in suspension in a dilute electrolyte which is drawn through a tiny
orifice with a voltage applied across it.
 As particles flow through the orifice a voltage pulse is recorded.
 The amplitude of the pulse can be related to the volume of the particle passing the
orifice.
 Thus, by electronically counting and classifying the pulses according to amplitude
this technique can give a number distribution of the equivalent volume sphere
diameter.
 The lower size limit is dictated by the smallest practical orifice and the upper limit
is governed by the need to maintain particles in suspension.
 Although liquids more viscous than water may be used to reduce sedimentation,
the practical range of size for this method is 0.3-1000 μm.
 Errors are introduced if more than that one particle passes through the orifice at a76
time and so dilute suspensions are used to reduce the likelihood of this error.
Granulometric…
Cont’d

77
 Granulometric…
Cont’d
6. Laser Diffraction
This method relies on the fact that for light passing through a suspension, the diffraction angle is
inversely proportional to the particle size. An instrument would consists of a laser as a source of
coherent light of known fixed wavelength (typically 0.63 μm), a suitable detector
 To relate the diffraction angle with particle
size, early instruments used the Fraunhofer
theory, which can give rise to large errors When the light strikes the particles
under some circumstances (e.g. when the
refractive indices of the particle material and
suspending medium approach each other).

 Modern instruments use the Mie theory for

interaction of light with matter.
 This allows particle sizing in the range 0.1-
2000 μm, provided that the refractive indices
of the particle material and suspending 78
medium are known.
 Granulometric…
Cont’d
 This method gives a volume distribution and measures a - Size, shap and optical properties also
diameter known as the laser diameter. affect the angle and intensity of scattered
light
 Particle size analysis by laser diffraction is very common in
- Extermely difficult to extract shape
industry today. information without a priori knowledge.
=> assume hard shere model
- Optical properties (refractive index)
explain refraction
- => key d/c b/n Fraunhofer and Mie
theory.

79
 CHAPTER -3

Size Reduction or
Comminution or
Grinding and Milling
80
 Contents
 Introduction to size reduction
 Mechanism of size reduction
 Materials properties
 Energy and power requirement for size reduction
 Size reduction equipment

Assignment-2:
=> Literature review on Size reduction and enlargement
equipment (classification)
81
Introduction to Size Reduction:
 Comminution is the generic term used for size reduction, although
such a term includes operations such as crushing or pulverizing.
 The reduction mechanism consists of deforming the solid piece until it
breaks or tears.
 Breaking of hard materials along cracks or defects in their structures
is accomplished by applying diverse forces.
 Size reduction is applied to all the ways in which particles of solids
are cut or broken down into smaller pieces. 82
 THE OBJECTIVE OF COMMINUTION:
 To produce small particles from large ones which are desired because of their size, shape,
number, or large surface area
 Increasing the surface area to volume ratio so as to: reduce drying time, increase
extraction rate, decrease heating, cooling and cooking time , facilitate mixing &
blending etc.

 Products are to be obtained which meet the requirements concerning the particle size and
shape distribution (minimum or maximum size)
 Products should have to meet specific surface requirements;
 The specific surface is generally an essential property of the product, especially if the
products are afterwards heated in mass transfer operations and reactions.

 Size reduction is used to permit the mechanical separation of unwanted ingredients from
valuable substances.
 E.g. separation of stone from valuable ores which are originally included in stone.

 It may help in reducing the bulk of fibrous materials for easier handling and for waste 83

disposal.
 Size reduction may increase the reactivity of solids.
 THEORY OF SIZE REDUCTION
 Every true solid material has specific true crystalline structure.
 When the material is broken into segments during commination, the shape of
the segment depends on its crystalline structure.
 As a force is applied to a substance, it begins to deform. Unless the stress
(F/A) exceeds the elastic limit the substance will return to its original shape
when the force is removed, and the stored energy is released as heat.
 If stress is increased beyond the elastic limit, permanent deformation occurs
until the breaking stress is exceeded - at this point the material fractures and
breaks along a line of weakness (cleavage plane).
 As the size of a piece is reduced, the breaking stress which must be exceeded
increases.
84
 There is a substantial increase in energy requirement as the size of particles is
reduced.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING SIZE REDUCTION OPERATION
1. Feed and Product Size-
 the required granulometric state of the product, reduction ratio:,

Reduction ratio = (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑)/(𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 o𝑓

𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡),
RR =Df/Dp
 for coarse crushers: RR = 3 to 20,

 for fine grinders : RR ≥ 100

85
 FACTORS INFLUENCING SIZE REDUCTION OPERATION

2. Nature of Material: - The properties of the rock handled:

 The state of the raw material (density) granulometric state, hardness,
elasticity, toughness, (hard to cut as leather), brittleness (hard but easily
breaks glass), Grindability of the feed depends: hardness, toughness,
crystallinity, cleavage Hardness –
 Hardness: - very hard materials are better in low speed or low contact machines
 Structure -fibrous materials need tearing or cutting action
 Moisture content -materials with 5 -50% moisture does not flow easily and can be
difficult to process
 Friability:The friability of the material is its tendency to fracture during normal handling.
 Stickiness- sticky materials need easily cleaned machines
 Soapiness -if coefficient of friction is low crushing may be difficult
 Explosives -need inert atmosphere
86
 Hazardous to health -need good confinement
 Closeness of distribution
 FACTORS INFLUENCING SIZE REDUCTION OPERATION

3. Ways to carry out commination: the kind and intensity of size

reducing action;
 Free crushing: The product material is continuously
discharged,
 Choke feeding: It does not freely discharge the crushed
product,
 Closed circuit operation: With a classifying screen.

87
 MECHANISMS IN SIZE REDUCTION
 The principal types of forces used in size reduction equipment are:
1.Compression
 The material is crushed b/n rollers by the application of pressure and
compressed.
 used for course reduction of hard solids to give coarse crushing
relatively few fines.
 E.g. Roller mill, Crushing rolls

2.Impact (collision) –
Striking against hard body gives coarse, medium or fine product.
Impact occurs when moving particles strikes against a stationary
phase. In the same way particles moving at high speeds collide each 88

other and produces smaller particle. E.g. Hammer mill, etc.

 MECHANISMAS IN SIZE REDUCTION
3.Attrition (rubbing).
 It involves breaking down of the material by rubbing action b/n
two surfaces. i.e. surface phenomena
 yields very fine products from non abrasive material. E.g. fluid
energy mill

4.Cutting –
Dicers, knives are used to gives a definite particle size and some
times with definite shape with few or no fines.
89
It is useful for the commination of fibrous or waxy solids.

 Modes of Operation of Size Reduction Equipment
 Open circuit reduction- simplest method of operating a mill, product
passes straight through, no classifying screens, no recycling of oversize,
wide size distribution results as some particles pass through quickly, others
stay for some time (also resulting in higher energy consumption).

 Free crushing- as with open circuit, but residence time kept to a minimum,
often by material falling through action zone under influence of gravity,
production of undersize reduced, and lower energy consumption, but large
size range .

 Choke feeding- discharge is restricted by inserting a screen in the outlet, so

material stays choked in the action zone until reduced to a small enough
size, long residence time results in undersize particles and additional energy
90
consumption, useful to prevent oversize, and a large reduction ratio can be
achieved.
 Size Reduction Equipment
 Coarse crusher (to produce coarse and fine) The main existing coarse crushers
are:
Þ Jaw crusher, Gyratory crusher, Roll crusher

 Grinders (to produce intermediate and fine particles) the main existing equipment
are:
 Hammer mills, impactors, disk mills,

 Rolling compression mills such as bowl mills and roller mills

 Attrition mills

 Tumbling mills such as: rod mills, ball mills, pebble mills, tube mills,&
compartment mills.

 Ultra-fine grinders; Hammer mills with internal classifications, Fluid energy 92

mills, Agitated mills.
 Cutting machines; used for exact reduction types are: Knife cutter, dicers, slicers.
 Size Reduction Equipment
 In crushers, slow compression will be observed,
 in grinder’s impact and attrition, some times combined with
compression,
 in ultra-fine grinders in general attrition,

 in cutting mills cutting action.

 Ideal equipment has to full fill the following criteria;

 large capacity,

 Small power required per unit of product and

 Product of single size or size distribution is desired.

 The available equipment is only an approach to this ideal particular

characteristic of valid (hardness, particle size in product and feed)
93
frequently the combination of different machines and separation
processes is applied in order to come to a nearly ideal process.
 Size Reduction Equipment
Crushers do the heavy work of breaking large pieces of solid materials
into small lumps through slow peed operation..
 A primary crusher operates on run-of-mine material, accepting anything
that come out of the mine face and breaking it into 150-250 mm lumps.
 A secondary crusher reduces these lumps to particles perhaps 6mm in
size.
 Grinders reduce crushed feed to powder. The product from an intermediate
grinder might pass a 40-mesh screen;
 most of the product from a fine grinder would pass a 200-mesh screen
with a 74 μm opening.
 An ultra-fine grinder accept feed particles no larger than 6mm the
product size is typically 1 to 50 μm .
 Cutters give particles of definite size and some times definite shape 2 to
94
10 mm in length.
 Crushes machines which are used for milling solid materials:
 Cheek and jaw mill

 Rollers mill

 Cone mill

 Hammer mill

 Disk mill (Excelsior)

97
 Size Reduction Equipment

Jaw crusher (doge type) - is usually for crushing of hard


and intermediate hard substances. The maximum of
original lump size for individual performance is at most
Jaw Crushers 1m, the reduction ratio of the size of feed to the size of
product is; nr =5....9

98
Fig.: Jaw crusher. 1. feed hopper, 2. wedge block , 3. Jaw cam block, 4.
Movable jaw, 5. Adjustment knob, 6. Grease caps, 7. Stationary jaw, 8. Spring
rod assembly
Roller mills: Used to mill food grains for coarse and
intermediate grinding mainly.
 Two or more steel rollers revolve towards each other and pull
particles of food through the ‘nip’ (the space between the
rollers).

 The size of the nip is adjustable for different foods and

overload springs protect against accidental damage from metal
or stones.

1,2 - rolls
3 - spring

99
 There are a large number of designs of disc mill, each employing shearing
forces for fine grinding or shearing and impact forces for coarser grinding.
E.g:
• single-disc mills in which food passes through an adjustable gap between
Disk mill a stationary casing and a grooved disc, which rotates at high speed
• double-disc mills which have two discs that rotate in opposite directions
to produce greater shearing forces

100

Buhr mill
 IMPACT - CENTRIFUGAL MILLS

 Hammer mills
 These have a horizontal cylindrical chamber, lined with a
toughened steel breaker plate.
A high-speed rotor inside the chamber is fitted with
swinging hammers along its length.
 Using for crystalline and fibrous materials including
spices and sugar. 101
102
Swing claw Hammer mill103
 The Centrifugal Mill

104

Different types of hammer and centrifugal mill screens

 Crushing Rolls

Attrition Mill
105
For fine milling

106
The Cutting Mills
 where specially designed for processing thermoplastic syrup, but they
are also applicable for reduction of cork, cellulose, fabric, leather, etc.
the mill consisting of housing in which a cutting rotor with knives, is
rotating. The grinded products fall through a screen which, partially
encloses, the rotor? The mesh size of this screen essentially influences
the particle size of product.

 To minimize the energy demand to meet particle size requirements

combinations of different machines are often useful (so called closed
circuit grinding)
107
108
 Energy Requirements in Comminution

 To estimate the energy requirement for a specified reduction in particle size, various
mathematical models are available.

 These are based on the assumption that the energy “dE” required to produce a small
change “dx” in the size of a unit mass of material can be expressed as a power function
of the size of the material.
…………………….Equ 1
Where
dE = Change in energy dx = Change in size
K = Constant x = Particle size
 The negative signs indicate that the change of decrease in energy with respect to particle
size.
 The equation is often referred as the general law of comminution and has been used
by a number of workers to derive more specific laws depending on the application. 109
 Energy Requirements in Comminution
1. Rittniger’s Law
 Rittinger (1867) considered that for the grinding of solids, the energy required should be
proportional to the new surface produced, i.e n = 2,
 dE = dx
 ΔE =-K│

E ………………..Equ. 2
Where, E = Energy per unit mass required for the production of a new surface by reduction
K = Rittniger’s constant and is determined for a particular equipment and material
x1 = Average initial feed size and
x2 = Average final product size
 Rittinger’s law has been found to hold better for fine grinding, where a large increase in
surface results. 110
 Energy Requirements in Comminution
2. Kick’s Law
 Kick (1885) estimated that the energy required for a given size reduction was proportional to the
size reduction ratio and took the value of the power n as 1.

E………………Equ 3
 Where, = The size reduction ratio
 Kick’s law has been found to hold more accurately for coarser crushing
where most of the energy is used in causing fracture along existing cracks. 111
 Energy Requirements in Comminution
3. Bond’s Law
 Bond (1952, 1963), who considered that the work necessary for reduction was inversely
proportional to the square root of the size produced. In Bond’s consideration, n = 3/2

E………………Equ 4
112
 Energy Requirements in Comminution
 3. Bond’s Law
 However, Bond’s law is usually presented in the form the following equation.
The law is based on data which Bond obtained from industrial and laboratory
scale processes involving many materials.

 Where, 𝐸𝐵 is the energy required to reduce the top particle size of the
material from 𝑥1 to 𝑥2 and 𝑊𝑖 is the Bond work index, Since top size is
difficult to define, in practice 𝑋1 to 𝑋2 are taken to be the sieve size in
micrometres through which 80% of the material, in the feed and product,
respectively, will pass. Bond attached particular significance to the 80% passing
size.

 Inspection of Equation (𝐸𝐵) reveals that 𝑊𝑖 is defined as the energy required113to

reduce the size of unit mass of material from infinity to 100 μm in size.
Although the work index is defined in this way, it is actually determined
 Energy Requirements in Comminution
3. Bond’s Law

E…………………….…Equ 5

 Thus, R/ship between KB and Wi

KB …………..Equ 6

E……...Equ 7

Bond’s law has been found to apply well to a variety of materials undergoing
coarse, intermediate and fine grinding.
 Both 𝐸𝐵 and 𝑊𝑖 have the dimensions of energy per unit mass and commonly
expressed in the unit’s kilowatt-hour per short ton (2000 lb) (1 kWh/short ton
114
nearly equal to 4000 J/kg).
WORK INDEX
Table 1:- Gives a typical work index for some common minerals
in 𝑘𝑊. ℎ𝑟. 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑡𝑜𝑛

115
E.g. A material consisting originally of 25 mm particles is crushed to
an average size of 7mm and requires 20 kJ⁄Kg for this size reduction.
Determine the energy required to crush the material from 25mm to
3.5mm assuming (a) Rittinger’s law, (b) Kick’s law and (c) Bond’s law

E.g. What is the power required to crush 100 ton/h of limestone if 80%
of the feed passes a 2 in screen and 80% of the product a 1/8 in. screen?
[1 inch = 25.4 mm]

116