Chapter 3

Learning and Memory

CONSUMER
BEHAVIOR, 10e
Michael R. Solomon

3-1
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 Learning Objectives
When you finish this chapter, you should
understand why:

1. It’s important for marketers to understand how

consumers learn about products and services.
2. Conditioning results in learning.
3. Learned associations can generalize to other
things and why this is important to marketers.
4. There is a difference between classical and
instrumental conditioning.

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 Learning Objectives (continued)
5. We learn by observing others’ behavior.
6. Our brains process information about brands to
retain them in memory.
7. The other products we associate with an
individual product influence how we will
remember it.
8. Products help us to retrieve memories from our
past.
9. Marketers measure our memories about
products.

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 Learning Objective 1
• It is important to
understand how
consumers learn about
products and services

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 Theories of Learning
• Behavioral learning theories focus on
stimulus-response connections
• Cognitive theories focus on consumers as
problem solvers who learn when they
observe relationships.

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 Learning Objective 2
• Conditioning results in learning.

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 Types of Behavioral Learning Theories
Classical conditioning: a
stimulus that elicits a
response is paired with
another stimulus that
initially does not elicit a
response on its own.
Instrumental conditioning
(also, operant conditioning):
the individual learns to
perform behaviors that
produce positive outcomes
and to avoid those that yield
negative outcomes.

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 Classical Conditioning

• Components of Conditioning
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
• Conditioning Issues
• Repetition
• Stimulus generalization
• Stimulus discrimination

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 Components of Conditioning

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):

The unconditioned stimulus could be a natural, automatic response triggered by
a product or service. For example, the taste of a delicious burger (UCS)
naturally triggers hunger.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS):

• The conditioned stimulus in marketing could be a logo, jingle, or any
branding element. For instance, when consumers see the Nike
"swoosh" logo (CS), they associate it with quality athletic products
due to prior positive experiences.

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 Components of Conditioning

• Conditioned Response (CR):

• The conditioned response is the desired
consumer behavior. When consumers see
the Apple logo (CS), they may have a
conditioned response to associate it with
innovation and quality, leading to a
purchase decision (CR).

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Conditioning Issues in Marketing:

1.Repetition:
repetition is key to strengthening brand associations. Frequent exposure to
a brand's logo or tagline helps solidify the connection between the CS and
the UCS. For example, Coca-Cola repeats its distinctive red and white
branding (CS) in various advertisements to enhance its association with
enjoyment and refreshment (UCS).

2.Stimulus Generalization:
stimulus generalization can occur when a brand's logo or product design
is similar to a competitor's. Consumers might associate a new product
with a similar look to an established brand, expecting a similar quality or
experience. For example, many generic cola brands intentionally use
packaging and branding resembling Coca-Cola to tap into the positive
associations with the Coca-Cola brand.

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 Conditioning Issues in Marketing:
1.Stimulus Discrimination:
Effective branding and advertising help
consumers distinguish between products or
brands. For instance, Starbucks' use of
specific design elements and colors helps
consumers discriminate their brand from
competitors, making it easier for consumers to
choose Starbucks products over others.

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 For Reflection
• Make a pair of two, find out brands and
products that are involved or successfully
doing stimulus generalization.

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 Marketing Applications of Repetition
• Repetition increases learning
• More exposures = increased brand awareness
• When exposure decreases, extinction occurs
• However, too MUCH exposure leads to
advertising wear out.

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 For Reflection
• Some advertisers use well-known songs to
promote their products. They often pay more for
the song than for original compositions. How do
you react when one of your favorite songs turns
up in a commercial?
• Why do advertisers do this? How does this
relate to learning theory?

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 Learning Objective 4
• There is a difference
between classical and
instrumental
conditioning and both
processes help
consumers to learn
about products.

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 How Does
Instrumental Conditioning Occur?

• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Punishment

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 Figure 3.1 Types of Reinforcement

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 For Reflection
• What kind of reinforcement is being used
when stores offer loyalty programs?
• Provide several examples and identity the
reinforcement approach being used.

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 Learning Objective 5
• We learn about products by observing
others’ behavior.

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 For Reflection
• To what extent do you emulate a
celebrity’s choices? How does this differ
for celebrities who are overtly endorsing a
brand versus those who have an organic
brand relationship?

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 Cognitive Theories
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory:
• Cognitive dissonance refers to the discomfort or tension consumers feel
when they experience conflicting beliefs or attitudes. This theory suggests
that consumers strive to reduce cognitive dissonance by seeking out
information that supports their decision, avoiding contradictory
information, or even returning a purchased product. Marketers can address
this by reassuring customers about their purchase decisions through post-
purchase communication and support.

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 Cognitive Theories
• Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM):
• ELM describes how consumers process information and make decisions
based on two routes the central route and the peripheral route. The central
route involves thoughtful, high-involvement decision-making, while the
peripheral route involves less cognitive effort and relies on peripheral cues
like aesthetics or brand image. Understanding which route consumers are
likely to take helps marketers tailor their messaging and persuasion
strategies accordingly.

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 Learning Objective 6
• Our brains process information about
brands to retain them in memory.

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 Memory Systems

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3-25
 For Reflection
• What’s a memory that you just can’t seem
to forget (bonus, if you think of one related
to a brand)?
• Now that you know the types of memory
and how your mind stores information,
why do you think the memory stays with
you?

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 Learning Objective 8
• Products help us to retrieve memories
from our past.

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 Understanding When We Remember
• State-dependent retrieval
• Familiarity and recall
• Salience and the “von
Restorff” effect
• Viewing context
• Pictorial versus verbal cues

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 For Reflection
• List three of your favorite foods.
• What memories do you have associated
with these foods?
• Are the foods associated with specific
family events like a gathering for St.
Patrick’s Day? Explain.

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 Learning Objective 9
• Marketers measure
our memories about
products and ads.

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 Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli
• Recognition versus recall
• Problems with memory measures
• Response biases
• Memory lapses
• Omitting
• Averaging
• Telescoping
• Illusion of truth effect

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 The Marketing Power of Nostalgia
• Marketers may
resurrect popular
characters to evoke
fond memories of the
past
• Nostalgia
• Retro brand

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 For Reflection
• What “retro brands” are targeted to you? Were
these brands that were once used by your
parents?
• What newer brands focus on nostalgia, even
though they never existed before?

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 Chapter Summary
• Marketers need to know how consumers learn in
order to develop effective messages.
• Conditioning results in learning and learned
associations can generalize to other things.
• Learning can be accomplished through classical
and instrumental conditioning and through
observing the behavior of others.
• We use memory systems to store and retrieve
information.

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