LITERATURE UNDER

SPANISH COLONIALISM
(1565-1897)
From the 1550s to the 1890s, Philippine literature bloomed under the influence of
European giants like Spain’s Golden Age, Italy, and French Medieval works. This
period saw a flourishing of genres, with religious and moral themes taking center
stage. Poems, prayers, and tracts expounded on Christian doctrine, while the
“Pasyon” and lives of saints (“buhay”) offered devotional narratives. Dramas like
the “Cenaculo” and “Tibag” brought these themes to life, while verse games and
rituals added a touch of entertainment.
• Beyond religious themes, folklore and popular culture thrived. Folksongs, metrical
tales (“awit” and “corrido”), and even indoor games like “Bugtungan” showcased
the creativity of the people. Outdoor plays like the “Moriones” and “Sayaw sa
Obando” provided spectacles, while longer stage plays like “Moro-moro,”
“comedia,” and “zarzuela” offered more complex narratives.
The writers of this era were a diverse bunch. Missionary priests, Spanish friars, and even
Filipinos fluent in Spanish (“Ladinos”) contributed their voices. Early Tagalog poets like
Fernando Bagonbanta and Tomas Pinpin paved the way, while renowned “Pasyon” writer
Gaspar Aquino de Belen left his mark. Later, Jose de la Cruz (“Huseng Sisiw”) and Francisco
Balagtas (“Father of Tagalog Poetry”) further enriched the literary landscape.
• Looking at the characteristics of this period, we see a clear focus on Catholicism,
Christian values, and even courtly love. Poetry was often direct and instructional, while
drama flourished in both short and long formats, with elements of action and spectacle.
However, what truly sets this literature apart is its uniquely Filipino character. The
seamless blending of literary, oral, and dramatic elements, along with the unmistakable
influence of both indigenous and Hispanic cultures, makes this period a fascinating
testament to the Philippines’ rich cultural heritage
Philippine literature during the centuries spanning 1550s to 1890s witnessed a
fascinating dance between two distinct forces: Indigenization, drawing from the
deep well of ancient folk traditions, and Hispanization, the influx of Spanish and
European influences. This encounter wasn’t a simple takeover, but rather a
complex interplay that both modified and enriched the existing folk literature.
• Comparing key elements of the two periods reveals this dynamic fusion. Take the
Pasyon and epic narratives: themes and characters might have shifted under
Spanish influence, but the essence of storytelling remained vibrant. Similarly,
poetry saw changes in language and intent, often adopting devotional themes
alongside traditional forms. Likewise, drama incorporated European styles while
retaining elements of spectacle and audience participation.
This synthesis wasn’t uniform. Spanish influence was strongest in
Tagalog regions, reflected in the literary selections of this book.
However, it’s crucial to remember that vernacular literature thrived in
other parts of the Philippines, each with its unique blend of
Indigenization and Hispanization.
• Here’s why this matters: understanding this dynamic exchange allows
us to appreciate the remarkable resilience and adaptability of
Philippine literature. It wasn’t simply passive to foreign influences; it
actively engaged, transformed, and created something entirely new –
a truly unique testament to the nation’s rich cultural heritage.
LITERATURE OF RELIGION AND
MORALITY
• If there is any difference between Philippine literature and the literature of
other Asian countries, it is due to Christianity, Easily. Christianity constitutes the
strongest influence wrought by Spanish occupation upon our literature. So
pervasive was the Catholic religion in the literature, so “intimate and manifold”
was the relationship between the two, the except for a few types, the entire
literary body of this age might as well be called “religious literature.” Certainly its
bulk was “the literature of religion and morality.”
POEMS • The first Ladino poems with verse lines
written in Tagalog and then in Spanish were
written in the early 1600s and the first poems
in Tagalog were written in the early 1700s.
Religious in tone and subject matter, most of
them were veritable catechetical lessons or
outright prayers and Marian poems by friars
(including novenas and sermons)
PROSE
• The most famous piece of moralistic literature of the period was
Father Modesto de Castro’s Urbana at Feliza. On the literal level it is
an exchange of letters between no sisters, one in the city and the
other in the province; on the allegorical level, it is a portrayal of urban
and rural life, and a code of conduct for the ideal girl in almost all
situations, from courtship to marriage; in almost all places, from
Church to home; in her relations with God and man. It is full of moral
advice, and the didactic tone unmistakable. The proper young woman
of this time lived by this book.
 The most famous and most lasting religious
literature is the Pasyon, a rendering in the
vernacular of the life and Passion of Christ,
PASYON-THE in stanzas of five rhyming verse lines The
four Tagalog versions are the de Belen
PASSION OF (1704) the Guian (1750), the Pilapil (1814)
and the de la Merced (1852).
CHRIST • Often memorized, it is chanted throughout
most of Holy Week in shifts of three to
four hours each. Thus chanted it is called
the Pabasa (Reading). So widespread is it
especially in the Tagalog region, that it is
sometimes referred to as the Tagalog epic.
BUHAY (LIFE OR LIFE STORY)
Although not represented in this book, mention must be made of
buhays, lives of the saints and of Biblical characters, and even of
historical-legendary characters written like metrical tales and as long.
There are around 250 of such “Lives” with long titles, quite a number of
which are at the Lopez museum.
• Sample: Buhay ni San Isidro Labrador at ng kanyang esposang si Santa
Maria de la Cabeza, napapalamnan sa uicang castila ni Padre
Francisco Butiha by Pascual Poblete
VERSE DRAMATIZATIONS
Performed outdoor like street dramas, religious verse plays for
dramatizations as istinguished from full-length dramas) make up another
group descended from religious teachings or devotions. The mystery and
morality plays of Europe may be their literary forbears of literature directly
• There is the Panunuluyan (seeking entrance) performed on Christmas eve
with townspeople taking the parts of Jesus and Mary seeking abode in
Bethlehem. The partakers go from house to house and are, as in the Bible,
consistently refused until fnally they wind up at around midnight in the
stable which in this case is the Church where midnight mass is then started
with a live Belen. Its value and interest as literature in the verse-dialogues
that are recited at each stop with the climax in Church.
Another is the Salubong (Meeting or Encounter) performed on Easter dawn. The Resurrected Christ and the
Mother of Sorrows in carrosas (carriages), carried or pulled by townspeople, start from divergent points of
the town and meet joyously at the Church patio where an angel “comes down” from above by means of a
pulley-like contraption and removes Mary’s black veil to signify the end of mourning. While doing so a verse
is recited for which the “angel” has been carefully chosen and trained. The church bells then peal
triumphantly to mark the end of Lent and the beginning of Easter, whereupon all the children of the town
jump up and down if they want to grow up.
Next is the Alay (offering) performed every day of May before a side altar to the Firgin Mary. The offering of
flowers follows a fixed pattern and is accompanied by verse songs which the girls know by heart.
• The Pangaluluwa (freely translated-playing ghost) is performed on the eve of All Saints Day whereby young
boys and girls, supposed to be souls in purgatory released on this one day of the year, go around from
house to house seeking alms. If refused, they steal the homeowner’s chicken, which is then cooked into
arroz caldo later in the sight for a repast among friends, the victim of the theft included. Verses also
accompany the seeking of alms. The American Trick or Treat has similarities to this practice. The Hosanna
is played out in makeshift stages in the church patio on Palm Sunday, which commemorates Jesus’s
triumphant entry into Jerusalem.
 RELIGIOUS DRAMAS-CENACULO,
The best-lovedTIBAG
long drama is the Cenaculo – Christ’s Passion. Here and there in the country, the
Cenaculo is still staged during the entire Holy Week
The Cenaculo is actually the pasyon dramatized. It is divided into several parts – one part for
each night of Holy Week. Each performance lasts from three to four hours. In Malibay, Pasay for
example, the entire Cenaculo cycle starts with the Creation and ends with the Resurrection.
Hardly anybody knows, however, of the Tibag (Dig) and that it is actually a relatively long play.
The Tibag is a reenactment of Helena of Constantinople’s search for the true Cross At a certain
part of a town three mounds are set up. Each one is dug up and yields three crosses. The identity
of the true cross is established by a miracle. Verses are recited during the digging. The
performance is climaxed by a procession through the town, popularly known as the Santacruzan
(Holy Cross).
• In modern times, the Tibag has been reduced to this triumphant end, the Santacruzan, in
which “the true cross” is carried in procession. With the Flores de Mayo (Flowers of May and
climax of the Alay) these two festive processions culminate the May months in many a Filipino
town.
 The Awit and Corrido, were the best-known and most entertaining forms
of secular perature during this period. They were the Philippine versions
of the European metrical ale or medieval romance. Stories from the
French Charlemagne cycle and the Spanish “El Cid” reached the
Philippines.
Both imitative and original, Filipinos writers notably Francisco Balagtas
METRICA and Jose de la Cruz and several other writers came up with the awit and
corrido, which defined, are long chivalric-heroic-legendary-religious
L TALES poems verse tales dealing with the loves and adventures of European
nobility especially those of France and Spain. Settings, names of places
AWIT and and personage are European.
CORRIDO • If the stories from the original source are simply retold in the
vernacular, or as we would now say, borrowed, as for examples, Ibong
Adarna or Siete Infantes de Lara, with alittle transformation here and
there, the narrative is generally called a corrido. This “borrowing”
however did not constitute plagiarism for from the start, the source of
the story is acknowledged and the act of “borrowing” is admitted as
such. If everything else is retained, but the story itself is wholly the
product of the writer’s imagination, as in Florante at Laura, then the
narrative is called an awit.
Structurally the corrido is usually rendered in octosyllabic quatrains while
the awit is rendered in dodesyllabic quatrains.
Corridos and awits are said to have been written in several Philippine
dialects although the Tagalogs seem to have written the greatest number. By
now the reader must know that the awit and corrido are not epics.
• Although basically imitative in subject matter and structure, the originality
and facility with which the Filipino authors retell such long tales in verse,
creating something “Filipino” in the process is not to be minimized. We
seem to excel in transforming whatever is foreign into something uniquely
ours. One cannot resist the temptation to cite the jeepney which is and is
not an American jeep, but which is definitely Filipino.
VERSE GAMES and RITUALS
KARAGATAN AND DUPLO
The Karagatan and Duplo are really not plays in the sense that plays are now
understood. They are more like parlor games consisting of continuous repartee and
wit performed in the house. It is thus a play of words, a “verbal joust.” Both take
place during wakes. Both are in verse, often impromptu and it is a wonder how
partakers can keep, especially performed in the duplo going for several hours!
The Karagatan (open sea) starts with the loss of a lady’s ring at sea. One young man
after another ventures to dive in and look for it. The finder wins the lady.
The Duplo (double) perhaps so-called as a duplication or further development of the
Karagatan is much longer and more organized than the Karagatan.
• Partakers are divided into two teams, the dupleros or belyakos (male players) and
the dupleras or belyakas (female players) presided over by a punong halamanan or
“king duplero.”
VERSE GAMES and RITUALS
KARAGATAN AND DUPLO
The Karagatan and Duplo are really not plays in the sense that plays are now
understood. They are more like parlor games consisting of continuous repartee and
wit performed in the house. It is thus a play of words, a “verbal joust.” Both take
place during wakes. Both are in verse, often impromptu and it is a wonder how
partakers can keep, especially performed in the duplo going for several hours!
The Karagatan (open sea) starts with the loss of a lady’s ring at sea. One young man
after another ventures to dive in and look for it. The finder wins the lady.
The Duplo (double) perhaps so-called as a duplication or further development of the
Karagatan is much longer and more organized than the Karagatan.
• Partakers are divided into two teams, the dupleros or belyakos (male players) and
the dupleras or belyakas (female players) presided over by a punong halamanan or
“king duplero.”
VERSE GAMES and RITUALS
KARAGATAN AND DUPLO
Partakers are divided into two teams, the dupleros or belyakos (male players) and the dupleras or
belyakas (female players) presided over by a punong halamanan or "king duplero."

There are several steps to the duplo whereby the king announces that a tribulation has visited the land, so
to speak, and all concerned are to gather round and be counted off Instructions are given to the players.
The Duplo proper is the "charge" understood here as "accusation" for the loss of some object in the
kingdom-a rosebud, a necklace, a bracelet, a fan, a bird, etc. and who, pray, has stolen it.

Charges and counter-charges are then hurled from one player to another. Everyone rises to his or her
defense. This constitutes the argumentation and debate which can last till morning. Truly a verbal
marathon, it finally winds up with the arrival of a guest duplero who in so many words says that all is
settled.
PUTONG

• Not represented in this book, the putong is a ceremony or ritual

still performed in some towns to coincide with certain important
occasion such as a fiesta. The putong is done to honor a person
for beauty or achievement. Performed on a stage, the honoree is
seated in the place of honor. Thereupon a well-known makata
(poet) quite lengthily and lavishly heaps praises on the honoree,
in verse, either prepared or extemporaneous. A crown is placed
on the honoree as a fitting climax.
DRAMA
MORO-MORO
The Moro-moro or comedia is another adaptation of a European drama form the
comedia de capa y espada. Performed on stage it is a direct descendant of the Spanish
plays depicting Spain’s struggles against the Moors, Brought to the Philippines through
Mexico, this kind of play became very popular because similar conditions existed in the
Philippines.
The Moro-moro deals with the battle between the Christians and the Muslims. A love
angle is included in the plot with the lovers invariably coming from the opposite camps
of Christian and Muslim. Invariably too it ends with the conversion of the principal
characters and their people, to Christianity. This no doubt was part and parcel of the
Christianization of the Islands.
• Like the awit and corrido, setting and costumes are European. Members of the
nobility are likewise the protogonists. Not surprisingly, the writers of the awit and
corrido were also the writers of the Moro-moro.
CARILLO AND ZARZUELA
Two other kinds of plays are found in this Period. The carillo or shadow
play is like a puppet show with stories similar to the metrical romance.
• The Zarzuela is a one-to-3-act musical play. Because the zarzuela
reached its peak in the first decades of American Occupation, the first
part of a well-loved zarzuela is placed in the American Period.
Folksongs in the Spanish Period
Despite the pervasive influence of Spanish culture during their rule in the
Philippines, folksongs stand out as a unique and relatively untouched branch of
literature. Thematically, they seem to remain an extension of their ancient roots,
with subject matters eerily similar to those from the pre-colonial era. It’s almost
impossible to distinguish whether a certain folksong truly belongs to the Spanish
period or its distant past. This raises an interesting question: are chronological
classifications of these songs, when they exist, more of a convenience than a
reflection of true historical origin?
• While Spanish influence might have subtly infiltrated the melodies of these
songs, this aspect falls under the domain of musicology and requires further
exploration. What’s clear is that, lyrically at least, Philippine folksongs maintained
a remarkable resilience, clinging to the spirit and stories of their ancient heritage
despite the cultural shifts brought about by colonization.
The Nationalist Tradition in Philippine
Literature (1860s-1910s):
The late 19th century saw the rise of the powerful Nationalist Tradition in Philippine
literature, marked by a confluence of influences. While Tagalog remained the primary
language, Spanish continued to hold a significant presence, reflecting Europe’s
lingering influence. Romanticism, the budding Realism movement, and the burgeoning
national spirit all played a role in shaping the content and style of this period.
• The literary landscape shifted towards essays, particularly journalistic forms like
reportages, opinion pieces, and articles. Poetry and fiction also flourished, finding
their voice in newspapers like “La Solidaridad” which became crucial platforms for
nationalist discourse. Patriotism and “protest literature” became the defining
themes, with works passionately addressing injustices and advocating for freedom,
cultural identity, Filipino dignity, and independence. Figures like Jose Rizal, Marcelo
del Pilar, Andres Bonifacio, and Emilio Jacinto led the charge, often using pen names
to highlight the inherent risks of their endeavors.
The Nationalist Tradition in Philippine
Literature (1860s-1910s):
• Content and tone were predominantly political, polemical, and
satirical, fueled by the struggle against colonial rule. This period
marked the crystallization of a distinct Filipino national identity and
the fight for independence. Manifestos, pamphlets, and newspapers
like “El Nuevo Dia” served as tools to disseminate the message, while
even seemingly “non-political” works carried hints of nationalist
sentiment. While heavily weighed on the “protest” aspect due to the
historical context, this era’s literature laid the groundwork for future
movements by establishing a strong national voice. It serves as a
reminder of the power of literature to spark social change and forge a
unique national identity.
THE SPANISH COLONIAL LITERATURE
• A legacy of Spanish colonial rule is written literature. It may be
conveniently classified into religious prose and poetry and secu- lar
prose and poetry. Religious lyrics include complimentary verses, or
verses that praise the book in which they appear. The first printed
literary work in Tagalog was the anonymous complimentary poem
“May Bagyo Ma’t May Rilim” (Though It Is Stormy and Dark). It was
published in the Memorial de la vida cristiana en lengua tagala
(Guidelines for the Christian Life in the Tagalog Languages (1605). It
uses the seven-syllable line, the monorime and the talinghaga.
May Bagyo Ma’t May Rilim
May bagyo ma’t may rilim Ang ola’y titigisin, Ako’y magpipilit din: Aking
paglalakbayin, Tuluyin kong hanapin Diyos na ama naming

Kung lumpo ma’t kung pilay, Anong di ikahahakbang; Na ito ang aakay,
Magtuturo ng daan; Tungkod ay inilaang Sukat pagkatibayan.
Dalit Another type of religious poetry is the dalit. It has no
fixed meter or time scheme, but usually written in
octosyllabic quatrains and are identifiable only by their
solemn tone and spiritual subject matter.
• Below is an excerpt from Marcelo H. Del Pilar’s “Dalit,”
written in 1888.
• Kung sa langit nabubuhay Ang sa lupang namamatay
Ano’t kinatatakutan Ang oras ng kamatayan?
• Ginto’t pilak sa pukpukan Ng platero’y umiinom,
Ang puring lalong makinang Sa pukpok ay
pumupusyaw.
Religious narrative prose

Religious narrative prose consists of the various kinds of

prose narratives written to prescribe proper behavior.
• Modesto de Castro’s Pagsusulatan ng Dalawang Binibini na
si Urbana at Feliza (Correspondence Between the Two
Maid- ens Urbana and Feliza), 1864. In these letters,
Urbana advises her sister on hispanized manners,
choosing a husband, respecting au- thorities, behaving at
parties. Here is an excerpt translated into En- glish by
Maria Kalaw Katigbak.
 ON GOOD
MANNERS
“In the presence of your parents or that of any elderly per- son,” says the moralist, Padre de Castro, “do not keep your ciga- rette
in your mouth, nor talk loudly, nor in any way show a lack of respect. Do not put your finger inside your nose, nor blow your nose
before people. He who feels like doing so should take out a handkerchief and should do it very softly and, if possible, away from
his companions. It is also the bad habit of some persons to scratch with their hand some parts of their body while with people.
This is an act which gives shame. Before going to school, the young students should ask the blessings of his mother and father,
and when he is already out in the street, he should walk straight on, without getting mixed up in the conversations or quarrels of
others. He should be formal. He should not criticize his neighbor or his classmate, nor lack for that indispensable respect towards
the old. And when a person of authority comes to the school, a priest, a person of age, or importance, he should stand up from
his seat and greet the visitor with “Good Morning,” or “Good Afternoon”, as the case may be.
“In the classroom, he should not speak unless asked by his teacher, and before answering, he should get up. He should do the
same when with his elders. When he is talking or is in conversation, he should try to hold himself erect, and whatever he has to
say, he should say without exaggeration and with modesty. When talking with anyone, he should, before saying a word, think of
St. Augustine’s wise counsel: “Ere the tongue speaks, file it twice.”
• “Do not point at a person with your finger nor give your back to him. When talking to many persons, do not address yourself
to one alone, disregarding the rest. But if among them there is one older than the rest or one of importance, address yourself
prefer- ably to him without, however, being discourteous to the others.”
 SECULAR WORKS
The Spanish period also produced secular works. Many secular lyrics are romantic.
Leona Florentino acclaimed “Unang Feministang Makata ng Pilipinas” wrote love poems. The
poem, “Nalpay A Namnama” translated in English (Blighted Hopes) by Marjorie Evasco and
Richard Gonzales and in Tagalog (Bigong Pag-asa) by Isagani R. Cruz, is about unrequited or
unreturned love.
Ipinanganak si Leona Florentino sa Villa Fernandina (ngayon ay Vigan), Ilocos Sur noong ika-19 ng
Abril 1849 at namatay sa maagang gulang na 35. Sa murang gulang na sampung taon ay
nagsimula na siyang magsulat ng mga tula sa Ilocano. Nabilang ang kanyang mga likha sa isang
eksibit sa Madrid sa Exposicion Gen- eral de Filipinas noong 1887. pagpapatunay pa rin ng
kanyang kahusayan ang pagkakalathala ng kanyang mga tula sa Biblioteque Internationale de
Ouvres de Femmes noong 1989.
• Another form of secular poetry is the metric romance called awit and korido in Tagalog. The
awit is written in dodecasyllabic quatrains, or four lines, each line in twelve syllables; the
korido, in octosyllabic quatrain, or four lines, each line consisting of eight syl- lables. In content,
though, the two forms are similar.
Francisco Baltazar’s FLORANTE AT LAURA is the most famous metrical romance in Philippine literary history. It is written in
dodecasyllabic awit form and was dedicated to one “Selya.”

Francisco Balagtas (1788-1899), a moralist and a philoso- pher, a poet and a lover, was born on April 2, 1788 in Bigaa, Bulacan. He fell
desperately in love with many women, one of them with M.A.R., Maria Asuncion Rivera, the Celia of his Florante at Laura. According
to H, Cruz in his article, Florante at Laura was written in prison.

The work FLORANTE AT LAURA is rich in sayings and prov- erb-like texts for varied themes in society

One of the greatest favorites among Philippine corrido is Ibong Adarna, the episodes of which include the quest for a magic bird, the
descent into a well, and the rescue of two prin- cesses, the winning of a swan maiden, the obstacle flight, and the forgotten fiancée.

Much was written during the period both in Spanish and Tagalog about other themes like love for one’s country and discontent
• for Spanish rule. Jose Rizal wrote Mi ultimo adios (My Last Farewell) and a las flores de Heidelberg (To the Flowers of Heidelberg)
to express his love for his native soil. A trilogy of patriotic poems written in Tagalog are expressions of the growing discontent
among Filipinos for Spanish rule: Herminigildo Flores’ Hibik nang Filipinas sa Inang Espana (Filipinas’s Lament to Mother Spain),
Marcelo H. Del Pilar’s Sagot nang Espana sa Hibik nang Filipinas (The Last Cry of Filipinas).
Another patriotic poem expresses Andres Bonifacio’s revolu- tionary spirit, Pag-ibig sa
Tinubuang Lupa (Love for the Native Land). It consists of 28 dodecasyllabic quatrains, or
four-line stan- zas of 12 syllables per line. The poem states that one’s love for the country
must be transformed into action to defend and protect it even to the point of using force or
violence. The poem led to the Revolution of 1896. Below are a few stanzas of the poem
with the English translation by Gregorio Nieva (The revolutionists: Aguinaldo, Bonifacio,
Jacinto).
RAFAEL PALMA (1874-1939), born in Tondo, Manila on October 24, 1874, he was essayist,
biographer, educator. He be- came a Senator, President of the University of the Philippines,
1923- 1933, and a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in 1934.
• The essay that follows is one of his best. What are Palma’s views on raising or rearing the
children or the youth in these fast changing times? Do these still apply to our youth
today?