Equivalence Theorem

• Equivalence Theorem or Equivalence Principle Another theorem that is closely

related to uniqueness theorem is the equivalence theorem or equivalence principle.
Some authors also call it Love’s equivalence principle . We can consider three
cases: (1) The inside out case. (2) The outside in case. (3) The general case .

The inside-out problem where equivalent

The outside-in problem where
currents are impressed on the surface S to
equivalent currents are impressed on
produce the same fields outside in Vo in both
the surface S to produce the same
cases.
fields inside in both cases
 PRINCIPLES OF IMAGES
• The behavior of antennas over infinite ground planes is of interest because:
• Antennas can be designed to make use of the ground plane
• The earth’s surface can be though of as an infinite ground plane under the
right conditions, and we will be interested in what happens when waves
interact with the earth (later). Consider an ideal dipole, vertically oriented
over a ground plane that is infinite in extent and perfectly conducting, as
shown in Figure 1(a).
• We will now show that an equivalent model of the system corresponds to
the situation shown in Figure 1(b), using what we know of boundary
conditions at PECs. The virtual dipole below the ground plane is known as
the image of the primary dipole.
As d → 0, the vertical dipole over
ground will still work (the two
currents effectively meld into one)
As d → 0, the horizontal dipole over
grounded ceases to radiate because
the real and image currents cancel
(looks like a transmission line!) • For
both situations, you could use array
theory to work out the exact
response at some point above the
ground plane.
SLOT ANTENNA
BABINET’S PRINCIPLE
A THIN SLOT IN AN INFINITE SCREEN
 HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
• Huygens principle is a method of analysis applied to wave propagation
problems both in the far-field limit and near-field diffraction and reflection.
It states that:
• “Every point on a wavefront is in itself the source of spherical wavelets
which spread out in the forward direction at the speed of light. The sum
of these spherical wavelets forms the wavefront”.
• However, this theory did not explain why refraction occurred in the first
place. Secondly, it could not explain how light carries energy as it travels.
• Huygens Principle, also known as the Huygens–Fresnel principle, highlights
the following wave propagation behavior:
• Secondary sources form wavelets similar to the primary source.
• At any given time, the common tangent on the wavelets in the forward
direction gives the new wavefront.
• The wavefront is the sum of the spherical wavelets.
 SECONDARY SOURCES
• Huygens stated that light is a wave propagating through space like ripples in water or sound in
air. Hence, light spreads out like a wave in all directions from a source. The locus of points
that travelled some distance during a fixed time interval is called a wavefront. Thus, from a
point source of light, the locus of points that light has travelled during a fixed time period is a
sphere (a circle if you consider a 2D source).
• After the primary wavefront is created, a secondary wavefront is created from every primary
wavefront. Secondly, every point on the wavefront acts as a secondary source of light that
emits more wavefronts. This way, a light wave propagates through space by generating
secondary sources and wavefronts. The net effect is that the effective wavefront generated is
tangential to all the secondary wavefronts generated by the secondary sources, as shown in the
figure.