TRANSPORT & NETWORK

LAYERS IN TCP/IP

Dr. SHUCHITA UPADHYAYA BHASIN

Professor
Department of Computer Science & Applications
 CONTEN
Transport layer :
TS
Addressing
 Services and Protocols
TCP and UDP services & header formats
Network layer in TCP/IP:
 Basiccharacteristics of IP protocol
 addressing and header format of IPv4
IPv6: Major goals& features
 TCP
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
is a TCP/IP standard that is based
on point-to-point communication
between two network hosts.
• TCP receives data from programs
and processes this data as a stream
of bytes.
• TCP provides a reliable, connection-
oriented packet delivery service.
• Additional functions specified by
TCP are the same order delivery,
reliable delivery, and flow control.
• It allows a byte stream originating
on one machine to be delivered
without error on any other machine
on the Internet.
The Transmission Control Protocol:
Guarantees delivery of IP datagrams;
 Performs segmentation and reassembly of large
blocks of data sent by programs;
Ensures proper sequencing and ordered delivery of
segmented data;
Performs checks on the integrity of transmitted
data by using checksum calculations;
Sends positive messages depending on whether
data was received successfully by using selective
acknowledgments, negative acknowledgments for
data not received are also sent;
Offers reliable session-based data transmission,
such as client/server database and e-mail programs.
TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast
sender cannot swamp a slow receiver with more
messages than it can handle.
• Before two TCP hosts can exchange data,
they must first establish a session with each
other.
• A TCP session is initialized through a process
known as a three-way handshake.
• This process synchronizes sequence
numbers and provides control information
that is needed to establish a virtual
connection between both hosts.
• Once the initial three-way handshake
completes, segments are sent and
acknowledged in a sequential manner
between both the sending and receiving
hosts.
• A similar handshake process is used by TCP
before closing a connection to verify that
both hosts are finished sending and receiving
all data.
• TCP segments are encapsulated and sent
within IP datagrams, as shown in the
 When services send data using TCP, segments may arrive at
their destination out of order.
 For the original message to be understood by the recipient,
the data in these segments is reassembled into the original
order.
 Sequence numbers are assigned in the header of each
packet to achieve this goal.
 During session setup, an initial sequence number (ISN) is
set.
 This initial sequence number represents the starting value
for the bytes for this session that will be transmitted to the
receiving application.
 As data is transmitted during the session, the sequence
number is incremented by the number of bytes that have
been transmitted.
 The receiving TCP process places the data from a segment
into a receiving buffer.
 Segments are placed in the proper sequence number order
and passed to the Application layer when reassembled.
 Any segments that arrive with non-contiguous sequence
numbers are held for later processing. Then, when the
segments with the missing bytes arrive, these segments are
processed
• Confirming Receipt of Segments:
One of TCP's functions is making sure that
each segment reaches its destination.
The TCP services on the destination host
acknowledge the data that it has received to
the source application.
 The segment header sequence number and
acknowledgement number are used
together to confirm receipt of the bytes of
data contained in the segments.
• Applications that use TCP are:
 Web Browsers, E-mail, File Transfers etc.
 Source port : 16 Bit number which identifies the
Source Port number (Sending Computer's TCP
Port).
 Destination port : 16 Bit number which identifies
the Destination Port number (Receiving Port).
 Sequence number : 32 Bit number used for byte
level numbering of TCP segments. If you are using
TCP, each byte of data is assigned a sequence
number. If SYN flag is set ,then this is the initial
sequence number. For example, let the first byte
of data by a device in a particular TCP header will
have its sequence number in this field 50000. If
this packet has 500 bytes of data in it, then the
next packet sent by this device will have the
sequence number of 50000 + 500 + 1 = 50501.
 Acknowledgment Number : 32 Bit number field
which indicates the next sequence number that
the sending device is expecting from the other
device.
 Header Length : 4 Bit field which shows the
number of 32 Bit words in the header. Also known
as the Data Offset field. Reserved : Always set to 0
(Size 6 bits).
 Control Bit Flags : Control Bits govern the entire process of
connection establishment, data transmissions and connection
termination. They are:
 URG : Urgent Pointer.
 ACK : Acknowledgement.
 PSH : When an application requests the TCP to push data, the
TCP should send the data that has accumulated without
waiting to fill the segment.
 RST : Reset the connection.. A RESET causes both sides
immediately to release the connection and all its resources.
 SYN : This flag means synchronize sequence numbers. Source
is beginning a new counting sequence. In other words, the TCP
segment contains the sequence number of the first sent byte
(ISN).
 FIN : No more data from the sender.
 Window :Indicates the size of the receive window, which specifies
the number of bytes the receiver is currently willing to receive.
 Checksum : The 16-bit checksum field is used for error-checking of
the header and data.
 Urgent Pointer : Shows the end of the urgent data so that
interrupted data streams can continue. When the URG bit is set,
the data is given priority over other data streams (Size 16 bits).
 UDP
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used by some
programs instead of TCP for fast, lightweight,
unreliable transportation of data between TCP/IP
hosts.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a simple,
unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications
that do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control
and wish to provide their own.
• UDP provides a connectionless datagram service
that offers best-effort delivery, which means that
Key application layer protocols that use UDP include:
UDP does not guarantee delivery or verify
sequencing for any datagrams.  Domain Name System (DNS)
 Simple Network Management Protocol
• UDP has the advantage of providing for low
overhead data delivery because it has a small (SNMP)
datagram header and no network management  Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
traffic. (DHCP)
• The pieces of communication in UDP are called  Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
datagrams.  Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
• Applications that use UDP include: Domain Name  Online games
System (DNS), Video Streaming, Voice over IP (VoIP)
etc.
• Source Port : Source Port is 2 Byte
long field used to identify port
number of source.
• Destination Port : It is 2 Byte long
field, used to identify the port of
destined packet.
• Length : Length is the length of UDP
Unlike TCP, Checksum calculation is not mandatory in
including header and the data. It is UDP. No Error control or flow control is provided by UDP.
16-bits field. Hence UDP depends on IP and ICMP for error reporting.
• Checksum : Checksum is 2 Bytes
long field. It is the 16-bit one’s
complement of the one’s
complement sum of the UDP
header
 IP
Basic characteristics:
• Connectionless - No connection is established before sending data packets.
• Best Effort (unreliable) - No overhead is used to guarantee packet delivery.
• Media Independent - Operates independently of the medium carrying the
data.

IPv4 Packet Header

 Packets in the IP layer are called datagrams.
 A datagram is a variable-length packet (up to
65,536 bytes) consisting of two parts: header and
data.
Best Effort Service of IP  The header can be from 20 to 60 bytes and contains
information essential to routing and delivery.
 An IPv4 protocol defines many different fields in the
packet header.
 These fields contain binary values that the IPv4
services reference as they forward packets across
the network.

Media independence: IP packets can travel over different media

 IPv4
• Version (VER)-4bits: defines the version number of the IP packet
so that revisions can be distinguished from each other.
• Header length (HLEN)-4bits: The HLEN field defines the length of
the header in multiples of four bytes. The four bits can represent a
number between 0 and 15, which, when multiplied by 4, gives a
maximum of 60 bytes.
• Service or Type-of-Service (ToS)-8bits: The Type-of-Service field
contains an 8-bit binary value that is used to determine the
priority of each packet. This value enables a Quality-of-Service
(QoS) mechanism to be applied to high priority packets, such as Flags-(3bits): The bits in the flags field deal with fragmentation
those carrying telephony voice data. The router processing the (the datagram can or cannot be fragmented; can be the first, middle,
packets can be configured to decide which packet it is to forward or last fragment; etc.). There is one unused bit and then two 1-bit
first, based on the Type-of-Service value. fields: DF and MF. DF stands for Don’t fragment. It is an order to the
routers not to fragment the datagram because the destination is
• Total length-16bits: This field gives the entire packet size, incapable of putting the pieces back together again. MF stands for
including header and data, in bytes. It is a two-byte field (16 bits) more fragments. All fragments except the last one have this bit set. It
is needed to know when all fragments of a datagram have arrived.
and can define up to 65,536 bytes.
Fragmentation Offset-13bits: . The fragmentation offset is a pointer
• Identification-16 bits: This field is used for uniquely identifying that shows the offset of the data in the original datagram (if it is
fragments of an original IP packet. A datagram, when passing fragmented) i.e. where in the current datagram this fragment
belongs.
through different networks, may be divided into fragments to The fragment offset field identifies the order in which to place the
match the network frame size. When this happens, each fragment packet fragment in the reconstruction.
is identified with a sequence number in this field. All the
fragments of a datagram contain the same Identification value.
• Time-to-Live (TTL)-8bits: The time to live field
defines the number of hops a datagram can travel
before it is discarded. The source host, when it
creates the datagram, sets this field to an initial
value. Then, as the datagram travels through the
Internet, router by router, each router decrements
this value by 1. If this value becomes 0 before the
datagram reaches its final destination, the
datagram is discarded.
• Protocol – 8 bits: This 8-bit binary value indicates
the data payload type that the packet is carrying.
The Protocol field enables the Network layer to
pass the data to the appropriate upper-layer
protocol. The protocol field defines which upper-
layer protocol data are encapsulated in the
datagram (TCP, UDP, ICMP, etc.). The value of this
field for each protocol is as shown:
Value Protocol
1 ICMP
2 IGMP
6 TCP
17 UDP
89 OSPF
Header checksum -16 bits: The checksum field is used for error checking of
the packet header. The header checksum field verifies the integrity of the
header of the IP packet. The data part is not verified and is left to upper-
layer protocols. If the verification process fails, the packet is simply
discarded.
Source IP Address – 32 bits: The source address field is a four-byte (32-bit)
Internet address.
Destination IP Address – 32 bits: The destination address field is a four-
byte (32-bit) Internet address.
Options: The options field gives more functionality to the IP datagram. It
can carry fields that control routing, timing, management, and alignment.
The options field is rarely used. Currently five options are defined, but not
all routers support all of them.
Option Description
Security Specifies how secret the datagram is
Strict source Gives the complete path to be followed
routing
Loose source Gives a list of routers not to be missed
routing
Record Makes each router append its IP address
Timestamp Makes each router append its address and timestamp
No-Operation Used as filler between options (one byte).
End of Option One byte option used for padding at the end of option field.
IPv4 Addressing
 IPv4 Addressing IP addresses in decimal notation
Range of IP addresses classes

Ipv4 Address Classes

Class Theoretical Address Range Binary Start Used for
A 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 0 Very large networks
B 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 10 Medium networks
C 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 110 Small networks
D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 1110 Multicast
E 240.0.0.0 to 247.255.255.255 1111 Experimental
 IPv
6
• The main driving force for the redesign of
Internet Protocol is the foreseeable
IPv4 address exhaustion.
• IPv6 has a vastly larger address space than IPv4.
• This results from the use of a 128-bit address,
whereas IPv4 uses only 32 bits.
• The new address space thus supports 2128
(about 3.4×1038) addresses. This expansion
provides flexibility in allocating addresses and
routing traffic.
• Network security is integrated into the design of
the IPv6 architecture.
• Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) was originally
developed for IPv6, but found widespread
optional deployment first in IPv4. The IPv6
specifications mandate IPsec implementation as
a fundamental interoperability requirement.
Major goals for a new version of IP were:
• Support of billions of hosts.
• Reduce size of routing tables.
• Simplify the protocol, to allow routers to
process packets faster.
• Provide better security than current IP.
• Pay more attention to type of service,
particularly for real-time data.
• Aid multicasting by allowing scopes to be
specified.
• Make it possible for a host to roam without
changing its address.
• Allow the protocol to evolve in the future.
• Permit the old and new protocols to coexist
for years.
 IPv6
Larger address space
• The most important feature of
IPv6 is a much larger address
space than that of IPv4:
addresses in IPv6 are 128 bits
long, compared to 32-bit
addresses in IPv4.
Simplified processing by routers
• The packet header in IPv6 is simpler than
that used in IPv4, with many rarely used
fields moved to separate options;
• IPv6 routers do not perform
fragmentation. IPv6 hosts are required to
either perform end-to-end fragmentation,
or to send packets no larger than the IPv6
default minimum MTU(message transfer
unit) size of 1280 octets.
• The IPv6 header is not protected by a
checksum;
 IPv6
Options extensibility
• IPv4 has a fixed size (40 octets) of option parameters.
• In IPv6, options are implemented as additional extension headers after the
IPv6 header, which limits their size only by the size of an entire packet.
• The extension header mechanism allows IPv6 to be easily 'extended' to support
future services for QoS, security, mobility, etc. without a redesign of the basic
protocol.
• IPv6 options are placed in separate headers that are located between the IPv6
header and the transport layer header.
• The extension headers are: Hop-by-Hop Option, Routing (Type 0), Fragment,
Destination Option, Authentication, Encapsulation Payload.
IPv6 Header format

• Version (4 bit): Indicates the protocol version, and will

thus contain the number 6.
• Traffic Class (8 bit): This field is used by the source and
routers to identify the packets belonging to the same
traffic class and thus distinguish between packets with
different priorities.
• Flow label (20 bit): Label for a data flow. Used by a source
to label those products for which it requests special
handling by the IPv6 router.
• Payload length (16 bit): Indicates the length of the packet
data field.
• Next header (8 bit): Identifies the type of header
immediately following the IPv6 header.
• Hop limit (8 bit): Decremented by one by each node that
forwards the packet. When the hop limit field reaches
zero, the packet is discarded.
• Source address (128 bit): The address of the originator of
the packet.
• Destination address ( 128 bit) : The address of the
intended recipient of the packet.
• The IPv6 packet is composed of three main
parts: the fixed header, optional extension
headers and the payload.
• The fixed header makes up the first 40 octets
(320 bits) of an IPv6 data packet. The header
contains the source and destination address,
traffic classification options, a hop counter,
and an indication of the next header. The
Next Header field points to a chain of zero or
more extension headers (chained by Next
Header fields); the last Next Header field
points to the upper-layer protocol that is
carried in the packet's payload.
• Extension headers carry options that are
used for special treatment of a packet along
the way or at its destination, routing,
fragmenting, and for security using the IPsec
framework.
• Fragmentation is handled only in the sending
host in IPv6: routers never fragment a packet.