SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 1: Introduction to Social Psychology

Please note the following:
• (1) Sociology is a “generalizing discipline”, which means we
generalize. What’s anathema to sociologists is
“overgeneralization”!
• (2) We will continue to deal with very controversial and even
emotional issues in this class. Saddle up! Come equipped to
argue with respect.
• (3) I will continue to use jokes and sarcasm to transmit
important information and to liven up the class. I’ll try to let
you know when I use jokes, sarcasm, hyperbole, etc. If in
doubt, please ask me.
• (4) Please come chat with me if you misunderstand anything
in any of our encounters throughout the semester.
 Online Textbook
•www.vitalsource.com

•DeLamater Social Psych textbook:

• https://www.vitalsource.com/products/social-psychology-john-delamate
r-v9781351015813
What is Social Psychology?
• Social psychology is the systematic study of the nature
and causes of human social behavior. This definition
has three parts:

• Social behavior, which includes:

• Behavior (action), affect (emotion), and cognition (thoughts)

• Nature and causes

• What people do AND why they do it

• Systematic study
• Employs the scientific method and formal research methodologies
FIVE

•Five
The Core
Concerns of Social
Psychology
Core Concerns of Social Psychology
1) The impact of one person on another person

• Individuals are affected by others in a variety of ways

• Listening and observing others gives us information about how to
behave, think, and feel
• One person might persuade another to change their beliefs about the
world or attitudes towards a person, group, or object
• One person may be helped (or hurt) by another
• One person might develop strong attitudes about another (either
positive or negative) based on who the other is and what he or she
does.
This view is: interested in communication, beliefs or attitudes.
Core Concerns of Social Psychology
2) The impact that a group has on its individual members

• People belong to many groups (families, work groups,

clubs, etc.)
• Groups establish rules or norms that regulate the
behavior of members and promote conformity
• Groups can have long term effects on members through
socialization processes
Core Concerns of Social Psychology
3) The impact of a member on a group’s activities and
structure

• Individuals contribute to group productivity and decision

making
• Leaders may plan, organize, and control the group
• Leadership and innovation are dependent upon
individual’s insight, initiative, and risk-taking
Core Concerns of Social Psychology
4) Impact of groups on groups

• Relationships between groups are based in part on members’ identities.

They may also rely on stereotypes.

• Relationships between groups can be positive (friendly, cooperative) or

negative (hostile, competitive).

• Relationships with other groups can influence group structure and activities.

This view is: interested in stereotypes or intergroup conflict.

Core Concerns of Social Psychology
5) Impact of social context on individuals and groups

• Our behavior is shaped by the setting we are in

• We learn through interactions with others, and through

socialization, how to behave in different contexts

• Over time our ability to adjust our behavior to fit the context seems
natural
Sociology, Psychology, or Both?
Definition Focus
Sociology The scientific study • Social institutions
of human society • Stratification
• Social processes
• Structure of social units
Psychology The scientific study • Human • Intelligence
of the individual learning • Emotions
and of individual • Perception • Motivation
behavior • Memory • personality

Sociological • Relationships between

Social Psychology individuals and the groups they
The scientific study
belong to
of the nature and
Psychological causes of human • How social stimuli (often other
Social Psychology social behavior persons) affect individual’s
behavior and internal states
 Diffs
• Substantive.

• Methodological.
• =labs v. surveys.
The TWO Social Psychologies
In general, Psychology deals with what goes on
within individuals while Sociology deals with what
goes on between individuals.
• Psychological Social psych is similar to mainstream
Sociology b/c studies are generally conducted
within SOCIAL SETTINGS.
• But Psych Soc Psych differs from Sociology b/c it
generally concentrates on INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
without much reference to (a) CULTURE and (b)
HOW INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR IS SOCIALLY
ORGANIZED and DIRECTED.
-->Limitations of Psych Social
Psych
• (i) Since cultural differences are
ignored, psychology tends to lead to
CULTURE-BOUND, ETHNOCENTRIC
EXPLANATIONS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR.
• (ii) Since psychologists tend to ignore
the larger social structure (institutions, etc),
their explanations tend to ignore the
influence of POWER, COERCION, FREEDOM
OF CHOICE, etc on human behavior.
Methodological Differences b/w the two social
psychs

•Psych Social Psychs rely

heavily on LAB experimental
methods.
•Sociological Social Psychs rely
heavily on SURVEYS.
Commonalities b/w The TWO
Social Psychologies
•The main concern of ALL social
Psychologists is HUMAN SOCIAL
BEHAVIOR.
•In particular, SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGISTS DEAL WITH FIVE
MAIN CONCERNS…as discussed in
your textbook.
FIVE “THEORIES”

•Five
Theoretical Perspectives in Social Psychology
• Social psychologists use both theories and theoretical
perspectives in their study of human social behavior.

• A theory is a set of interrelated propositions that organizes and

explains a set of observed phenomena
• They usually pertain to whole classes of events
• Theories that identify the conditions that produce specific social
behavior are known as middle-range theories

• A theoretical perspective is broader in scope than middle-range

theories
• They offer general explanations for a wide array of social behaviors
across a variety of situations
Theoretical Perspectives in Social Psychology
• Theoretical perspectives serve a number of purposes

• Establishes a vantage point for the examination

of a range of social behaviors

• Helps us to “see” certain aspects or features of

social behavior more clearly

• Applicability across many situations creates a

frame of reference for interpreting and
comparing social behaviors
Theoretical Perspectives in Social Psychology
• Sociological Social Psychology
• “Three Faces” of social psychology
• Symbolic Interaction focuses on symbolic communication
• Group Processes explores the ways people interact in
groups
• Social Structure and Personality examines the relationship
between positions in the social structure and values,
beliefs, and health

• Psychological Social Psychology

• Cognitive perspectives assert that a person’s mental
activities are determinants of social behavior
• Evolutionary perspectives assert that social behavior is
rooted in our genes
Theoretical Perspectives in Social Psychology

• Three sociological perspectives

• Symbolic interaction, group processes, social structure and personality

• Two psychological perspectives

• Cognitive perspectives, evolutionary theory

• Each theoretical perspective has its own areas of strength and

limitations. They differ in regards to the issues or topics they
address, concepts they draw on, methods traditionally used, and
behavior attended to. Despite these differences, they should be
considered complementary and not competing

• Social psychology is a collective enterprise, with sociologists and

psychologists routinely drawing on each other’s work
Theoretical Perspective:

(1) Symbolic Interaction

• Symbolic interaction guided a great deal of the early work
by sociological social psychologists, and it is still important
today

• asserts that human nature and social order are products of

symbolic communication among people

• suggests that society is produced and reproduced through our

interactions by means of language and our interpretation of that
language

• Symbolic interaction is useful for understanding topics

such as self-presentation, embarrassment and emotions,
and the labeling of the self and others
 Theoretical Perspective:

Symbolic Interaction
• Three main premises of symbolic interaction
• We act toward things on the basis of their meaning
• We would respond differently to a bottle being used as a vase than we
would if the bottle becomes a weapon

• Meanings are not inherent but are negotiated in interaction with

others
• We learn the meaning of things – from bottles
to money – through interactions with others.

• Meanings can be modified and changed

through interaction
• The same bottle can go from being a game
piece to waste when the game ends and the
party is over
Theoretical Perspective:

Symbolic Interaction
• Symbolic interaction provides us with several concepts
helpful for understanding and analyzing human interactions
• The self is a social object and its meaning is developed and
negotiated in interaction

• Situated identity – who each person is in relation to others in the

situation

• Role-taking occurs when we imagine ourselves in another person’s

role

• Significant others are those whose opinions we care about most

• Our ability to engage in self-perception, self-evaluation, and self-

control much in the way we perceive, evaluate, or control others is
called the reflexive self
Theoretical Perspective:

Symbolic Interaction
• Limitations of symbolic interaction theory
• Could be perceived as overemphasizing rational, self-conscious
thought and deemphasizing unconscious or emotional states

• Implies that the individual is a specific personality type (someone

who is oriented towards others and concerned primarily with
maintaining self respect by meeting others’ standards)

• May place too much emphasis on consensus and cooperation and

neglects or downplays the importance of conflict
Theoretical Perspective:

(2) Group Processes

• Group processes focus on how individuals interact in
groups. This approach is frequently used to address
topics such as
• helping behavior
• majority influence in groups
• group conflict and cohesion

• Favors experimental methods over surveys or

observational methods

• Two predominant orienting frameworks

• Social exchange
• Status
Theoretical Perspective:

Group Processes
• The social exchange perspective relies on a unique set
of concepts and assumptions which connect multiple
theories within the framework
• social exchange requires:
• Actors who exchange
• Resources to be exchanged
• An exchange process
• An exchange structure

• The social exchange perspective:

• Assumes that actors have freedom of choice
• Posits that actors try to maximize rewards and minimize costs
• Predicts that people will try to change an inequitable relationship
Theoretical Perspective:

Group Processes
• Social psychologists working within the group processes
framework are also interested in status, or levels of
esteem and perceived confidence

• Social psychological work on status has:

• Focused on how status differences emerge within groups

• How status differences in groups relate to outcomes such as

differences in contribution

• Explored how social differences based on categories (race, gender,

etc.) become status differences, how these differences are
sustained, and how they decline
Theoretical Perspective:

Group Processes
• Limitations of group processes
• The group processes tradition and related theories are based
largely on research conducted in laboratories.

• Most participants are WEIRD (Western, Educated, and from

Industrialized, Rich, Democratic countries)

• Addressing limitations
• Theories tested and developed in labs are often based on ‘real
world’ events
• More and more researchers are now incorporating non-laboratory-
based methods
Theoretical Perspective:

(3) Social Structure and Personality

• The social structure and personality perspective asserts
that we each occupy a unique position within the social
structure, and that this position influences our personality.

• Our position in social structure includes, in part, our education,

occupation, social class, gender, race, age, and many other
attributes and experiences.

• Personality includes but is not limited to values, attitudes, and

goals
Theoretical Perspective:

Social Structure and Personality

• Limitations of social structure and personality
• Some argue that this tradition is the most sociological of the three
faces because it accounts for macrosociological structures,
however there are critics

• One main critique is that much of the research describes a

relationship, and falls short of proposing a mechanism
(explanation) for the relationship

• Another common criticism is that this approach does not account

for those who fall outside trends and averages
Theoretical Perspectives in Social Psychology
• Sociological Social Psychology
• “Three Faces” of social psychology
• Symbolic Interaction focuses on symbolic communication
• Group Processes explores the ways people interact in groups
• Social Structure and Personality examines the relationship between
positions in the social structure and values, beliefs, and health

• Psychological Social Psychology

• Cognitive perspectives assert that a person’s mental activities are
determinants of social behavior
• Evolutionary perspectives assert that social behavior is rooted in our
genes
Theoretical Perspective:

(4) Cognitive Perspectives

• Social psychologists with a psychological orientation tend
to emphasize cognitive perspectives, which assert that
mental activities of an individual are important
determinants of social behavior

• Cognitive processes include:

• Perception
• Memory
• Judgment
• Problem solving
• Decision making
Theoretical Perspective:

Cognitive Perspectives
• Cognitive theory maintains that the link between external
stimuli and behavioral response is indirect

External stimuli cognitive process behavioral response

• External stimulus is understood only by viewing it in the

context of an entire system
• To make sense of complex information about people, groups, or
situations, actors rely on schemas. Schemas help us
• Interpret the environment efficiently
• Identify what information is important for interaction and what is not
• Remember information better and process it more quickly
• Fill gaps in knowledge and enable us to make inferences
Theoretical Perspective:

Cognitive Perspectives
• Dual-Process Theory of Information Processing
• Asserts that we process information in two ways: automatically and
deliberately
• Automatic processing: fast, relies on heuristics (cognitive shortcuts)
• Allows us to make rapid decisions regarding how to interact with people
• Deliberate processing: slower, effortful
• Occurs when 1) person is of relevance or 2) they are inconsistent with our
heuristics

• Social Identity Theory

• Asserts that individuals’ identification with groups, organizations,
and cultures guide cognitive processes
• If someone does not identify with a group, it is not psychologically real
Theoretical Perspective:

Cognitive Perspectives
• Limitations to cognitive perspectives
• Cognitive perspectives simplify (and sometimes oversimplify) how
people process information

• Cognitive processes are not directly observable

• Definitive tests of theoretical predictions can be difficult to conduct
• Methodological advances are making such tests increasingly possible
Theoretical Perspective:

(5) Evolutionary Theory

• Evolutionary psychologists extend evolutionary ideas to
social behavior, such as altruism, sexual behavior, and
mate selection
• Roots social behavior in our genes
• Suggests that those traits and characteristics that aid survival will
occur more frequently as carriers of these characteristics
reproduce

• Limitations
• Circular reasoning- explanations constructed after-the-fact
• Difficulty in judging explanations against competing arguments

•
FIVE Core Concerns and FIVE “Theories”

•Five
The Core
Concerns of Social
Psychology
Theoretical Perspectives in Social Psychology
• Sociological Social Psychology
• “Three Faces” of social psychology
• Symbolic Interaction focuses on symbolic communication
• Group Processes explores the ways people interact in groups
• Social Structure and Personality examines the relationship between
positions in the social structure and values, beliefs, and health

• Psychological Social Psychology

• Cognitive perspectives assert that a person’s mental activities are
determinants of social behavior
• Evolutionary perspectives assert that social behavior is rooted in our
genes.
 SOURCE
• DeLamater, Social Psychology (9th Edition).
The End