State Formation: Pre-Axumite States

• Different states are said to have existed prior to Axum in Ethiopia and
the Horn.
• Punt is one which according to hieroglyphics writings and paintings is
believed to have existed in Ethiopia and the Horn.
• As to the evidences, Punt was once used to be ruled by a king called
Perehu.
• It had trading contact with Egypt.
Cont’
• It used to serve as source of trading items like myrrh, ebony, monkey,
gold, ivory and so.
• Egyptians were in a position to send expedition to Punt even during
the reign of queen Hatshepsut .
• Location of Punt is not yet known. Assumptions are that it may have
been located either in Northern Somalia or Northern Ethiopia.
Cont’
• As a result Sabean language and script had been introduced to the
area.
• According to 5th B.C inscriptions, its rulers used to worship similar god
with the Arabs, Al-Muqah( the moon god) and used to use similar title
Mukarib.
• Evidences show that prosperity period was from 750 B.C. to 500 B.C.
The Axumite State
• As to evidence from the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, a guide book
for sea voyage by unknown author, Axum is assumed to have
originated in the time between 100B.C. and 100 A.D.
• The rise of Axum as important state was related to :
• Fertile soil
• Abundant rainfall
• Strategic location
Cont’

Population of Axum and Economy

• The population of Axum were predominantly Cushitic and Semitic.
But some were of Nilotic origin.
• Speaking of the social structure of these population, the Axumites
were found to be so stratified society in that
Cont’
the kings were at the top and the slaves were at the bottom, peasants,
artisans feeling the middle layer.
• Economically, the Axumites were dependent on agriculture and trade.
• At first the power of the Axumite was limited to a small region.
Cont’
• But it gradually expanded in all directions and was able to
incorporate several areas under its rule.
• In its heyday, its territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the
east to the western edge of the Ethiopian plateau overlooking the
vast Nile Valley (west);
Cont’
• from the northern most corners of Eritrea as far as the northern
parts of Shawa.
• Between the 3rd and the 7th c of our era, Axum had territories even in
the southern parts of the Arabian peninsula (Yemen)
• Ezana and Kaleb are remembered to have been abled military leaders
from Axumite rulers.
• According to a Persian philosopher called Manni,
Cont’
• Axum was in its heyday one among the four great powerful kingdoms
of the world along with Persia, Rome and China.
• Axum was able to capitalize on its impact making both through
diplomacy and use of military power.
• When it comes to commerce, Axum was actively involved in trading
activity both
Cont’
locally and at international level.
• Its trade items for export include mainly of natural products :ivory,
myrrh, emeralds, frankincense, spices, gold, rhinoceros horns,
hippopotamus hides and tortoise shells and even live animals like
apes.
• On the other hand it used to import a number of manufactured
goods,
Cont’
different kinds of garments and textiles (Egypt, India and Persia)
glassware and Jewelry (Egypt and other places), metallic sheets, tools
and utensils of various kinds and even olive oil and wine (Syria and
Italy).
• To boost their trade in the time between 270 A.D. and 620 A.D.,
Axumites were able to mint their own coins of bronze, silver and gold.
Cont’
• Whereas the gold was used for international trade, the bronze and
silver were used for local purposes.
• The coins were adorned with Geez and Greek inscriptions, busts of
kings and other symbols of power and religious worship.
• The coin making was started by Endubis, but was ended during
Armah.
Cont’
Religion
• Prior to Ezana’s conversion, Axumites used to Practice different
religions, though Judaism, Christianity was also one of them.
• The trinity heaven, earth and beher were worshiped. Mahrem (war
god), Almuqah, and Habas were also worshipped.
• Polytheism was the order of the day.
Cont’
Decline:
Axum begun to decline in the early decades of the seventh century.
Causes were:
• 1. Degradation of soil
• 2. Climatic change (insufficient rainfall)
Cont’
3. Internal political and economic problems:
a. Great plague
b. Internal revolt by Beja and Agaw tribes
4. External Problem
c. Persian dominance of Jerusalem, Egypt and Yemen
d. Arab dominance of Red Sea trade. Adulis 702 A.D.
Cont’
• Generally Axum weakened economically, and that was followed by
political and military weakness.
Legacies of Axum
• Political legacy: centralized state
• Cultural Legacy: Christianity
• Art and Literature: Geez
• Architecture: Rock hewn churches ,obelisks
Obelisks
• Although no evidence is available, it can roughly be estimated that
they were produced before the time of the Christ. Assumed to be
more than 2000 years in age.
• The obelisks in Axum are three in type: those which were well- made
and decorated, those which were half completed and those which
were not hewn at all, but were simple megaliths.
Cont’
• Sources put varying numbers of steals in Axum ranging from 54 to 64
obelisks. 246 small and medium sized monuments
• The technique of construction is very interesting. They were erected
at the foot of a hill which was dug out to make it firm. There are two
basements :one at a distance of about 4 meters. The other just
around the stelea in the form a giant flat cut stone.
Cont’
• The plan worked in the case of small stelae but in giant stelae ,
although supported was too heavy to remain standing.
• Legend has it, however, that Gudit destroyed it.
• Long, Medium, Small (33, 26,24 meters respectively)
Gudit
• Reigned (852-892)
The Zagwe Dynasty
• Originated in the 12th c and took control of the whole kingdom
deriving much of its political support from Lasta.
• The Agaws active involvement in the economic and military life of the
country led them to power.
• This was so especially after the southward retreat of the Axumite
kingdom and established itself around the region of
Cont’
Southern Tigray and Angot where the Agaws were common.
• Founder was Mera Teklehaymanot an Axumite general from Bugna
who married daughter of Axum’s last emperor, Dil Naod,
Mesebowerq.
• He rebelled against Dil Naod and killed him and usurped the throne
and ruled for 13 years.
Cont’
• Zagwe established capital at a place called Adafa.
• Seven emperors reigned and the last was Yitbarek the son of Lalibela
who was deposed in 1270 A.D.
• The reign of Emperor Lalibela marked the apex of the Zagwe Dynasty
• Lalibela (1160-1211) took power from Harbe, his brother.
Cont’
• Lalibela was a devout Christian Emperor. During his reign land was
given to monasteries and the 11 rock hewn churches in Lalibela were
constructed.
• He constructed them to discourage pilgrimage to Jerusalem which
was a risky one.
• The 11 Rock Hewn Churches are:
Cont’
1. Bete Medhanialem
2. Bete Maryam
3. Bete Meskel
4. Bete Dengel
5. Bete Golgotha and 6. Bete Mikael
7. Bete Emmanuel
8. Bete Merqoryos
Cont’
9. Bete Libanos
10. Bete Gabriel
11. Bete Giorgis
• Even if Neakuta Leab, following his death shortly replaced Lalibela,
Yitbarek soon took power.
• Zagwes territorial sphere of influence used to extend from Blue Nile
to Masawa, Metmma, Harar to Zeila, northern Shawa, Gojjam,
Sidama,Jimma.
Cont’
• Diplomatically Zagwes established good relation with neighboring
Egypt (though later interrupted) and Palestine.
Decline:
• The power of Zagwe declined in the 2nd half of the 13th c because of :
1. Problem of succession
Cont’
• (Harbe versus Lalibela) and (Neakuta Leab versus Yitbarek)
2. Attack from Damot
3. Growth of Muslim powers “Zeila” and interruption of trade and
pressure on local Christians
4. Rise of Yikuno Amlak
Solomonic Dynasty
• This dynasty came to power in 1270 A.D.
• Its founder was Yikuno Amlak and its last emperor was Hailesillase I,
who was deposed in 1974.
• The dynasty claimed to have blood relation with King Solomon of
Israel and thus received its naming.
Cont’
• The legendary claim attests that the first leader of the Dynasty King
Menelik I was born from Solomon as Saba had conceived a child from
him during her visit.
• The rulers of this dynasty inherited the legacies of the Axumites in all
aspects and they had also unlimited secular and religious powers.
Cont’
• The dynasty among other things was notorious for its lack of
permanent capital although there were attempts to do so. Among
those who tried to have a permanent capital were ZaraYaqo (Debra
Birhan ) and his successors Beade Maryam and Libna Dingil.
• Although it lacked capital, it does not mean it had no political centers
at all.
Cont’
• Rather it had centers in different parts of the country including
Amhara (Wollo) that later shifted to the districts of Manz, Tagulat,
Bulga, and that of Shawa Managasha, Wachacha, Furi and Zuquala
mountains.
• Evidences tell that the lack of permanent capital was related to
security reasons in face of rebellions.
Cont’
• The Solomonic Dynasty, alternatively called the Christian Kingdom
was famous for effectively occupying wide ranging territories on four
directions of the country.
• That is West (Gojjam, Gondar, Bizamo, Damot), East ( L. Lands ) ,
North ( H.L) and South ( Gurage and Omotic speaking peoples)
Cont’
• In all these territories the rulers were able to form effective
centralized administration.
• Occupied territories were expected to pay tributes to government
officials and failure to do that was met with punishment as it was
considered rebellion.
Cont’
• Diplomatically, the Solomonic rulers continued good relationships that
their predecessor Zagwe rulers established with Egypt and the Holy
places of Palestine.
• They also had good relation with countries around Mediterranean
sea, Near and Middle East and India Ocean.
• Motives of relationships on the side of
Cont’
Ethiopians was to secure assistance in transferable skills and
knowledge.
• But this project was not successful
1. Because of travel difficulty
2. Because of religious controversy
South and southwest: Bizamo, Damot ,
Enarya and Gafat
• The Kingdom of Bizamo
The kingdom of Bizamo existed on the southern bend of the Abbay
river just opposite to the present district of Wambarma in southern
Gojjam. We do not know when the state of Bizamo came into
existence. But it existed until the end of the sixteenth century under
the control of the Christian kingdom. The medieval population of
Bizamo consited of the speakers of the Omotic language family.
Among them the present day Shinasha ethnic group was one of the
settlers of the kingdom.
Cont’
• The population of Bizamo was constantly harassed by the Christian
kings who led occasional slave raids into the kingdom. This reduced
the population of Bizamo. On the arrival of the Mecha Oromo
towards the end of the sixteenth century, part of the remaining
population fled across the Abbay into Gojjam. Part of the population
which remained behind retreated further west to the lowlands, while
the remaining part was assimilated by the Mecha Oromo.
Cont’
• The Kingdom of Damot

• Damot was one of the oldest and strongest states in the Ethiopian
region. For most of its history Damot roughly occupied the western
and southwestern part of the Ethiopian region. The eastern part of
the state probably included what is now the territory of the Regional
State of Beni Shangul- Gumuz. The northern frontier of the kingdom
stretched to the present day northern Shewa, and Damot also
included the central and southern parts of Shewa.
Cont’
• A vast territory south of the Abbay gorge was also part of the territory
of Damot. We do not know when the kingdom of Damot came into
existence. However, the history of the kingdom goes back to the
Aksumite period. At that time Damot was known for its gold which
reached the market of Aksum and the ports of the Red Sea coast.
During the southward political orientation of the Christian kingdom of
Aksum in the ninth and tenth centuries, it seems that the kingdom of
Damot had put up a strong challenge against the further expansion of
the Christian state.
Cont’
• The dominance of Damot in the Ethiopian region continued during
the Zagwe period. During the period, Muslim and Christian trading
communities depended on the kingdom of Damot for the sources of
trade items. From Damot trade items such as gold, ginger and slaves
were exported to countries as far as Arabia, Persia, India, Egypt and
Greece.
Cont’
• The communities served as middlemen between the coast and the
kingdom. Therefore, trade influenced the pattern of their relation
with the kingdom of Damot. In this respect, common interest
promoted the maintenance of peaceful relations for most of the time.
But there were occasions when Damot interfered in the commercial
affairs of the communities.
Cont’
• On such occasions the communities put pressure on the Zagwe kings
to interfere on their behalf. Under such a pressure, one Zagwe king
led a military expedition against Damot towards the end of the
twelfth century. Unfortunately, the expedition ended in complete
defeat of the Zagwe king. This shows that Damot was a viable state
even by that time. Among the kings of Damot, Motalami is constantly
mentioned in the records of the period.
Cont’
• Damot seems to have attained the peak of its power during the reign
of this king. One indication to this is a fierce struggle between
Motalami and Yekuno-Amlak. The struggle was over the control of
Shewa. In the struggle Motalami was finally defeated. After this
defeat Motalami was converted to Christianity which marked the
beginning of a growing Christian influence in Damot.
Cont’
• But Damot continued its resistance from lands to the south of the
Gibe River until 1316, when Amde Seyon finally annexed the kingdom.
Subsequently, Damot became the tributary of the Christiam kingdom
and continued to exist up to the time of the expansion of the Mecha
Oromo in the area towards the end of the sixteenth century. On the
arrival of the Mecha, part of the population of Damot fled across the
Abbay river to southern Gojiam. The district they settled at the time is
still called Damot.
Cont’
• The Kingdom of Enarya
• The medieval kingdom of Enarya was located immediately to the
north of the Gojeb River and west of the upper course of the Gibe
river. We do not know when this state came into existence. But
Enarya is mentioned for the first time in the documents of the
Christian kings towards the end of the Aksumite period. Christian
influence had reached Enarya as early as the middle of the thirteenth
century.
Cont’
• Subsequently, the Christian influence grew strong and finally, Enarya
became the tributary of the Christian kingdom during the reign of
Amde Seyon. Enarya was the main source of trade items for the trade
of the region. Above all, pure gold from Enarya was exported to the
countries as far as Egypt, Greece and Rome.
Cont’
• Enarya continued to serve as an important source of trade items,
particularly for gold, up to the sixteenth century.
•
• The later history of Enarya was closely related to the history of the
Oromo people. Enarya was one of the kingdoms which strongly
resisted the expansion of the Mecha Oromo in the area beginning
from the end of the sixteenth century. Enarya resisted the Mecha
Oromo for more than a century.
Cont’
• Finally, it was defeated by one of the clans of the Mecha called
Limmu.
• Subsequently, the conquerors took the name Limmu-Enarya,
signifying a complete assimilation of the people of Enarya to the
Mecha Oromo.
Cont’
• Gafat
• The original homeland of the Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River
adjoining Damot. It is not clear from the scanty records in Ethiopian
chronicles whether the Gafat formed a “state” or “kingdom,” or not,
but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.
Muslim States
• Important Muslim states emerged along the trade routes to Zeila as
early as the time of Shawa in the 9th c.
• In the 13th c Ifat eclipsed Shawa. Other important Muslim states
include Dawro (Middle Awash and Wabi Shebelle), Sharkha (Arsi), Bali
(S.Dawro), Hadya (West of Dawro) , Arbabani and Dara.
Cont’
• Economically , alike the Christian Kingdom, the Muslim states were
dependent on agriculture and profitable trade pertaining to their
strategic location.
• In administration too, the Muslim states like their Christian counter
parts were so centralized where their rulers enjoyed both religious
and secular powers.
Cont’
• Gradually most of the Muslim states were brought effectively under
the control of the Christian Kingdom, especially during the reign of
Emperor Amda Tsion.
• Direct rule was established on majority of the Muslim States like
Dawro, Fatgar and Bali.
• To support military success, the Christian rulers also arranged
diplomatic marriages with some.
Cont’
• As of the 2nd half of the 14th c, however, the Christian dominance was
challenged by an Emirate in the name Adal.
• This Emirate founded by descendants of the Sultanate of Ifat, Haqadin
(1364-1387) and Saadadin (1387-1402) was located in Harar.
• Principal people were at first Hararis and Argobas. But gradually were
included
Cont’
• Afars and Somalis. With that the power of the Emirate was increased
and so was the challenge it posed on the Christian Kingdom.
• Besides its strategic location, which used to help the Muslims to have
negotiating power, it was rise of Imam Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim Al-Ghazi,
commonly called Gragn (the left handed) in 1520s that changed the
balance of power.
Rise of Gragn to Power
• After some time, in the absence of Amda Tsion, a new challenger to
the Christian Kingdom came in the name of Adal.
• Whereas Amda Tsion’s successors fought hard to preserve
dominance, the Muslims of Adal also kept pressing for more freedom
and power.
Cont’
• During the reign of Zara Yaqob (1434-1468), Ahmad Badlay dared
even to invade the Christian kingdom mobilizing enough of his forces.
• His defeat and death in the battle of 1445 led to decline of Adal and
Harar.
• Gradually they were found to be vulnerable for dominance by
pastoralist Afar.
Cont’
• Mohammd Ahmad Badlay, as successor, preferred to continue as
tributary in the face of Afar dominance.
• But as of the last decade of 15th c , politics in Adal was dominated by
chief of the Afar, Emir Mahfuz.
• Mahfuz then entered into planning and conducting raids against
Christians.
Cont’
• That is until he was killed in a battle against Libne Dingil in 1517.
• Pushed into the Harar, the Walsma continued to be dominated by
Afars for later years.
• Death of Mahfuz was followed by rise of Gragn as son in law.
• Gragn once In power, worked and succeeded in bringing peace among
warring Muslims.
Cont’
• Gragn created peace among the Muslim pastoralists using Islam as an
ideology and through promise of take over of land from that of the
Christians, as land was their main cause of conflict.
• As a result of his skill, the Muslim state he led was strengthened.
Cont’
• Giving his campaign a religious cause, he declared Jihad on the
Christians and was able to raise the spirit of his warriors.
• Meanwhile, there was an international development where Turks and
Portugal were members.
• The discovery of a sea route to India with which Europeans traded in
1498 was revolutionary.
Cont’
• Because the discovery cut the land routes to India, the Muslims,
especially the Turks were not happy and as a result they worked then
after to cut the sea route.
• That blockade resulted in confrontation with the Portuguese.
• Soon both begun open conflict and began to look for possible local
allies.
Cont’
• The Portuguese approached the Christians and started to come to
Ethiopia as of 1508.
• In 1520 a Portuguese embassy led by Francisco Alvarez came to
Ethiopia and stayed until 1526.
• On their turn, the Turks approached Muslims.
• Gragn’s invasion of the highland began in 1527 when the
international development was simmering.
Cont’
• In 1529, at the battle of Shimbra Kure, Muslims scored phenomenal
victory. As of that the wars continued to be fought by locals.
• Gragn formed huge rule all over Ethiopia.
• In 1540, 200 Turks were sent to help the war effort of Gragn and the
war was internationalized.
• In its turn, Portugal sent 400 troops under Christopher da Gama.
Cont’
• Eventually ,the war was internationalized and Gragn was finally
defeated in 1543 at the Battle of Weyna Dega with the help of the
Portuguese. That is after causing a lot of havoc on the Christians.
• Galawdewos (1549-59) the victor ruled until 1559 and he on his turn
was killed at the battle of Fatagar by Emir Nur Mujahid, who married
Bati Dil Wonbera, widow of Gragn.
Cont’
• When Minas was in rule, a new power, the Oromos were on the move
and he was forced to change seat to Lake Tana area.
• Nur on his turn was forced to save his city Harar building a wall called
Jagol.