UNIT THREE: POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN

ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE

THIRTEENTH CENTURY HUCSSHDA

3.1. Emergence of States

• State refers to an autonomous political unit having
population, defined territory, sovereignty and
government with the power to decree and enforce laws.
Major factors for the emergence of states
The beginning of sedentary agriculture
Religion- the first states were theocratic states.
Priests (shaman) maintained the social and religious
affairs.
Trade- as of production became market oriented.
Village chiefs protected markets and trade routes.
 For such protection, they imposed compulsory
tributes.
• Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions, where early
state formation took place.
• Early states gradually developed into powerful
kingdoms and even empires.
• Geographical proximity to and control of the
international water bodies enabled them emerge
stronger and influence neighbors.
 3.2. Ancient States
3.2.1. North and Northeast
• Punt: existed, in the third millennium BC.
• the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
• the evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphics.
• Hieroglyphics tell that Egyptian pharaohs sent trade ships
to Punt.
• Egyptian expedition was welcomed by the Punts.
• Agents of Egyptian rulers collected items like:
• Ebony, ivory, rhinoceros horn
• Iron, bronze, electrum
• spices like cinnamon
• myrrh, frank incense, sandal,
• leopard and leopard skins
 • animals fur, dying and medicinal plant
• ostrich feathers and egg
• live monkeys, giraffes, dancing dwarf
• Egyptians called Puntites as Khebis of Ta Netjeru (divine or
ghosts land)
• In turn Puntites imported finished goods like:
• axes, daggers, swords, knives, clothes
• sickles, bracelets, necklaces, beads & trinkets.
• Suggestions regarding the exact location of Punt:
northern or northeastern Somalia, source of myrrh
and incense.
northern Ethiopia- source of gold, ebony & monkeys.
stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb
and Cape Gardafui.
B. Da’amat and Others other Cultural Centers
Da’amat:
 a little to the south of Aksum.
 Information comes from local inscriptions
 tentatively dated to the fifth century B.C.
 Ruled by kings such as RDM, RBH & LMN & titled
mlkn.
 Rulers also used the south Arabian politico-religious title
called Mukharib.
 had established relations with the south Arabia.
 Society worshiped many gods and goddesses such as:
 Almouqah-principal god, Astar (Venus god),
 Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god)
Yeha: located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum.
probably emerged around 1, 000 BC.
• traded with South Arabian merchants.
• was at zenith from about 750 to 500 B.C.
• standing temple and inscriptions still exist.
Hawulti Melazo:
• situated to southeast of Aksum
• There are stone tablets inscribed in rectangular temple
• and also paintings representing herds of cattle
Addi-Seglemeni:
• located at 10kms southwest of Aksum
• the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription was discovered
• Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara, Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi
Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda
were additional cultural centers in the region.
C. The Aksumite State
• The exact time for the emergence of Aksum as a center of
state is not certain.
• Our knowledge about Aksum comes from inscriptions and
written sources. Exa.
• Periplus of Erythrean Sea:
– Mentions Adulis as commercial port of Aksum.
– It also mentions ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf like
Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean
Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava)
and Merca.
 – Zoscales (c. 76-89) used to communicate in Greek
– attempts to describe the territories of Aksumite Kingdom
• The Christian Topography:
– mentions trade b/n Aksum and Sasu, most probably in Beni
Shangul.
Most of merchants at Sasu communicated through gesture.
– described Aksum-Meroe rivalry
– explained King Caleb’s campaigns to South Arabia
The nucleus of Aksumite state was formed cr. 200-100 B.C.
Initially, the state of Aksum comprised only the town of Aksum and
its environs.
In its heyday, Aksumite territories run as far as:
 the Red Sea coast in the East
 the vast Nile Valley in the west a
  the northern most corner of Eritrea
 possibly northern parts of Shewa
 Aksum had access to trade in major water bodies
including the Mediterranean Sea.
• Gradually, Aksum monopolized the Red Sea trade.
• Merchants from abroad crowded the port of Adulis.
Aksum had relations with the Mediterranean world, the
Middle East and India.
• Sometimes international contacts involved conflicts.
• Around 200 A.D, in the reign of Gadarat, Aksumite
army attacked Southern Arabian Peninsula.
• During Kaleb (r. 500-35), Aksumite army battled with
Persians and Arabs.
• Prince Dhu-Nuwas, local Judaism convert, killed Zafar and
Nagran Christians.
• Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65) of Byzantine provided Kaleb
with a number of war ships.
• Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as
governor of Arabia that continued until 570 A. D.
• Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (
Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum).
– It was a major naval and trading power.
– It had a large fleet of ships
– It was sufficient sources of timber, key raw material to
build ships.
Decline of Aksumite State
 External Factors
-Persians-South Arabians alliance which inflicted blow to the
Aksumite government.
-Destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702.
 Internal factors
-Environmental degradation
-decline in agricultural productivity
-plague infestation
-Rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al
Hamwiyah (Yodit).
Remarkable Achievements
 a written language, Geez and calendar
 exceptional liturgical practices and hymns.
 ivory curving tradition
 diversified ceramic and lithic tools
 a ship building technology.
minted coins (from 3rd to 7th c).
 Architecture palaces, tombs and churches.
 erection of giant steles/oblisks
 Urbanization
 complex administrative/governance system
 agricultural system including irrigation, etc.
D. Zagwe Dynasty
• Aksumite state shifted southwards to Kubar.
• Kubar was in the territory of the Agew, Lasta.
• Agew were actively involved in Aksumite govt.
• Agew royalty intermarried with Aksumites.
• Such kind of relation was evident for at least four centuries.
• The relation brought about deep integration.
• Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter of
the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
• Merra overthrew Dil Na’od, his father-in-law (who left for
Shewa) and declared Zagwe Dynasty.
• Age Dynasty was centered first at Adefa in Bugna.
• Later, however, it was transferred to Roha (Lalibela).
• The longevity of Zagwe rule is still a matter of debate:
According to one argument Zagwe ruled from C. 1150
to 1270.
Believed to have ruled for about three hundred years.
• Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana
Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab,
Yetbarek etc.
• The Zagwe-ruled kingdom included:
• southern Eritrea, Tigray,
• Lasta, Wag & northern Shewa.
• Lake Tana region & northeastern Gojjam.
• Traditions also talk the Zagwe military expedition to the
Kingdom of Damot and Walayta.
• The economy of Zagwe kingdom was based on agriculture.
• Trade also brought additional wealth to the state.
• Foreign trade relied on Dahlak and Zeila sea outlets.
• The Agew administration maintained the ancient Aksumite
traditions almost intact.
– Christianity continued to spread and be a state religion.
– Ge’ez was still the church and court language.
– The church and the state were interdependent.
– Contact with Mediterranean region went on.
– Relations with the Muslims of the Middle East renewed.
Zagwe rule is renowned for its achievements of
architecture, literature and art.
• Paintings, mainly religious
• Translation of books from Arabic into Ge'ez.
• ChurchesLalibela wanted to establish the second
Jerusalem.
• Churches were built on model of Holy Lands in Israel.
• Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian
Orthodox Church in the mid-thirteenth century.
• The reign of King Lalibela marked the apex of Zagwe rule.
• The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to internal and
external problems.
Factors for the Decline of the Zagwe Dynasty
 ‘problem of succession’ to the throne, often settled by
force of arms, though failed to withstand debates.
 Anti-Zagwe propaganda from some clergy of the
Orthodox Church.
 Opposition groups claiming descent from the ancient
rulers of Aksum, assisted by the ecclesiastical hierarchy.
• Yitbarek (the last Agew ruler) was beat at Gaynt.
• Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285) declared the so-called
restoration of the ‘Solomonic’ Dynasty.
3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States
3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat
A. Bizamo:
 located on the southern bend of Abbay overlooking the
present day Gojjam and around the current Wambara area.
 founded in the eighth century AD.
 had early connections with Damot.
B. Damot:
Expanded its territories into most of the lands to:
 south of Abbay and north of Lake Turkana
 west of Awash and east of Didessa Rivers.
Motalami was prominent king of Damot in 13th c.
C. Enarya:
Located in Gibe region, southwestern Ethiopia.
 Its royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso)
 The King bore the title Hinnare Tato
 The real power rested with Mikretcho (council).
• Tato was secluded and considered as sacred.
• Some of rulers of Enarya were Badancho, Gu’amcho and
Banaro
 Mikretcho included Awa-rasha (king's spokesperson) and
Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).
 He had residences in Yadare and Gowi.
In the 9th c, it faced campaign of Aksumite king Digna-Jan.
D. Gafat:
 lies south of Abbay, adjoining Damot.
 inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Adere
and Gurage.
 Gambo and Shat are some of Gafat clan names.
 The province was ruled by the title of Awalamo.
 Gafat mountains provided it a rich source of gold.
As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the
Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle.
 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates
A. Shewa:
 the oldest Islamic state led by Makhzumite dynasty.
 founded in 896 by Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who
claimed decent from Mecca.
 located on northeastern foothill of Shewa.
 conquered in 1285 by the Sultanate of Ifat.
B. Fatagar:
 founded in the eleventh century.
 Covered areas like Minjar, Shenkora & Ada’a
C. Dawaro:
 sources comes from Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-
umari.
 located between upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle
extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in
Southeast.
 had a currency called hakuna
D. Bali:
 occupied high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and
Rift valley Lakes.
 extended southwards to the Gannale Dirre River.
 was one of the largest Muslim states.
 had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
E. Ifat:
 emerged in the mid-13th century to the south of Shewa.
 the Argoba were dominant Muslim community.
 ruled by Walasma dynasty
 founded by Umar Walasma, who claimed decent from
Hashamite clan of Arabia.
 was fertile and well watered rich in fruits, cereals and
vegetables.
Others: mutually independent states like Arababani (between
Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro
and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora,
Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi)
and Sim were established and flourished.
 3.3. External Contacts of Ethiopia and the Horn
#Egyptian-the Horn Relations
 Ethiopia had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C.
 Christianity resulted in a new pattern of r/n in the region.
 Egyptian bishops have been consecrated as heads of EOC.
 Egyptian Sultans used bishops as instrument for their own
political sake.
 Until reduction of Christians into minority in Egypt, Ethio-
Egyptian relations were fairly smooth and friendly.
 There were considerable numbers of Ethiopian Christians in
Egyptian monasteries.
 Ethiopian rulers in turn used to react Egyptian government
by threatening to divert the Nile.
#The Horn and Greco-Roman World
 As of Christianity in the Horn, Aksum had established close
relationship with Europe.
 The rise in power of Muslim Arabs contributed to temporary
decline in Ethio-Europe relations.
 Old Ethiopian Christians living abroad served as important
link between the Horn and Europe.
 They transmitted information about the EOC and the state.
 This gave rise to a legend known as Prester John which
began to circulate Europe.

Please, discuss the legend known as Prester John.

#The Horn and the Arab World
• Ethiopia and the Horn had historic contacts with South
Arabia since at least 1,000 B.C.
• The relation was featured by both peace and conflicts.
• Islam has has brought about change in political dynamics of
the region.
• There was also relation with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and
Laodicea (Asia Minor).
 3.4. Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
Plough agriculture was the main stay in highland areas.
Irrigation contributed to growth of agricultural productivity.
Small valley wetlands were drained for dry season cultivation
The people used diverse soil fertility enhancement strategies.
In times of labor shortage, farmers also developed teamwork.
#Land tenure system is set of rules by which the society
hold, share and cultivate the land.
Theoretically, all land belonged to the state .
Peasants in the north had rist.
Rist is an inalienable communal birth right to land.
Land is inherited by members of the families and clans in
accordance with customary law.
• Land belongs to every living descendant of chief father,
who had settled and lived in the area over long periods.
• All the subjects of the state had the rist rights.
• The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
• Bale-rist paid tribute to the state.
#Gult appears to be as old as rist.
• Gult is a state right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce.
• An official collected tribute on behalf of the state.
• Such official is called bale-gult.
• Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult.
B. Handicrafts
• It is an indigenous technology which had existed since the
ancient period.
 Metal workers produced swords, hachettes, ornements etc.
 Carpenters made doors, beds, mortars, bowls, coffins etc.
 Potters produced utensils like saucepan, ovens, kettle,
plates, granary etc.
 Tanners produced leather tools used for bed, ropes,
footwear, drinking cup and clothes etc.
 Except the carpenters and masons in some cases,
artisans were mostly despised and marginalized.
 The ruling classes gave a little emphasis to the domestic
technology.
 They spent their wealth on imported luxurious items than
indigenous.
 Thus, the sophistication of local handicrafts remained very
limited.
C. Trade
Ancient states generated considerable income from both
internal and international trade.
They had benefited both local trade routs and international
sea trades.
Trade routes and trade ports were safeguarded by the lords
and their soldiers scattered from locality to coasts.

#End#3