BULE HORA UNIVESITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE & HUMANITIES

Department Of History & Heritage Management

Common Course: History Of Ethiopia & Horn (Hist. 1012)

 UNIT ONE
1.1 The Nature and Uses of History
A.Nature of History
History is derived from Greek word Istoria, means
“inquiry” or “an account of one’s inquiries.”
The term History is 1st used by ancient Greek
historians, Herodotus ( “father of history).
• In ordinary usage, history means all things happened
in the human past.
• Academically, history can be defined as an organized
and systematic study of the past. History is what
actually happened in the past; it is endless process
between past, present & future.
• Major concern of history is the study of human
society & its interaction with the natural
environment .

• Time/period is important in History. It helps to

organize & divide past simply. Putting events is
time is known as Periodization. History is divided
into ancient, medieval & modern history.

• Change & Continuities:- Historical developments

or events changed & remained unchanged.
 All aspects of human life, social, cultural,
economic, & political in the past have been
changing from time to time; not practiced exactly
the same way in the lifetime of ancestors.

But, some things stay the same for long periods.

Example:-Languages; beliefs & religious practices;
agricultural/pastoral ways of life ; social
organization.
B. Uses of History
•History :- Helps Better Understand the Present,
• Provides a Sense of Identity. a mirror in which
society see themselves.
* Provides Basic Background for other disciplines:
- Historical knowledge is extremely valuable for all
* Teaches Critical Skills:- helps to get research
skills(sources, arguments, writing, interpretation..)
* Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-
Mindedness
* Supplies Endless Source of Fascination:-sense
of beauty and excitement.
Why studying History is important?
It is essential to the individual and the society.
Because:-
• we grasp how and why things change; Understand
what elements of a society persist despite change.
• Aesthetic and humanistic goals
When we study History we should;
• Avoid personal bias and abuses. Professional
historian is different from propagandist. A
professional historian takes care to document his
judgment and assertions.
1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study
• Historians are not creative writers like novelists.
• Therefore, the work of historians must be supported
by evidence arising from sources. Historical sources
are broadly classified into two types : -Primary &
Secondary
1 Primary sources
• They are original or first hand in their proximity
to the event both in time and in space.
EXAMPLES :- manuscripts (handwritten materials),
diaries, letters, minutes, court records and
administrative files, travel documents, photographs,
maps, video and audiovisual materials, and artifacts
such as coins fossils, weapons, utensils, and
buildings.
 2 Secondary sources
. are second-hand published accounts about
past event
• They provide an interpretation of
* what happened,
* why it happened, and
* how it happened
.They often based on primary sources.
•EXAMPLES
articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and
published stories or movies about historical
events.
 oral tradition (data )
. is another source of historical writing
•Oral sources are especially valuable to study and
document the history of non-literate
societies
•It Is transmission of information from one
generation to another generation by speaking
rather than writing
•Oral data may lose its originality and authenticity
due to distortion through time
1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn
•Historiography :- history of historical writing.
Organized study & narration of past was
introduced by Greek historians Herodotus and
Thucydides
•Sima Qian : Han dynasty figure reminded for
Chinese tradition of thinking and writing.
•Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), & his
colleagues established history as an independent
discipline in Berlin. Ranke is considered as the
“father of modern historiography.”
•Manuscripts aside, the earliest written Ethiopian
material dates from the seventh century A.D.
1. Earliest known reference on history of Ethiopia
and Horn is the Periplus of Erythrean Sea ( 1st C ),
written by an anonymous author.
2. Christian Topography ( 6th C ) another document
composed by CosmosIndicopleustes.
- It describe Aksum’s trade and the then Aksumite
king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea.
Inscriptions: writings engraved on rocks, stones, walls,
monument shows past events.
Manuscripts:- hand written records of past in forms of
books. The other earliest written materials from 7th C.
Document found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha.
This was followed by a manuscript discovered;-
Haiq Istifanos monastery in Wollo ( 13 th C).
The value of manuscripts is essentially religious
Hagiographers:- about life of saints/ martyrs of Orthodox
church & mosques’. Deals about both state and religion.
Example: Hagiography of TekleHaimanot & Hagiography
of Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira(Muslim society)
Chronicle: record of the king and life at court. Ethiopia had
indigenous tradition of history writing. It is historical
accounts of Kings without analysis. Chronicles to court
scribes or clergymen.
• The earliest & last of such surviving documents:- Glorious
Victories of Amde-Tsion & Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and
Empress Zewditu respectively.
• Chronicles known for their factual detail & strong
chronological framework(arranged by time). It is not
analyzed & not interpreted.
• Chronicles :- historical events mainly in religious terms.
• Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to coast
also provide useful information on various aspects of
the region’s history:- Al-masudi & Ibn Battuta about
East African Coast.
• 16th and 17th C, two documents composed by
Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesse.
• 1st : Futuh al Habesha was composed by Shihab al-
Din, who recorded the conflict b/n Christian kingdom
& Muslim principalities in the 16th C.
• Contribution of European missionaries & travelers to
dev’t of Ethiopian historiography is also significant
• Missionaries (Catholics and Protestants).They
provide valuable information covering a considerable
period
1.The Prester John of Indies, composed by a
Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez.
2.Travel documents had also important contribution
to the development of Ethiopian historiography.
i. James Bruce’s Travels to Discover Source of the
Nile.
•17th C, Foreign writers also developed interest in
Ethiopian studies:- A German, Hiob Ludolf
(1624-1704):- was the founder of Ethiopian studies in
Europe (17th C). Wrote Historia Aethiopica
(translated as A New History of Ethiopia).
•He collected information from Abba (in Europe)
•Dillman published two books with better objectivity.
20th C, Historical writings separated from chroniclers traditions.
Traditional Ethiopian writers emerged. Earliest group of Ethiopian
writers:-

* Aleqa Taye Gebre Mariam,

* Aleqa Asme Giorgis

* Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi.

* Negadras affework Gebre-Iyesus and

* Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn

Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from

social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to
history
• Taye & Fisseha-Giorgis wrote history of Ethiopia.
• Asme produced a similar work on the Oromo people.
• Afework wrote 1st Amharic novel, Tobiya
Gebre-Hiwot : Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor
Menilek and Ethiopia) & Mengistna Yehizb
Astedader (Government & Public Administration) to
his name.
• The most prolific writer of the early 20th C was
Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie, Hiruy published
four major works namely; * Ethiopiana Metema
(Ethiopia and Metema), * Wazema(Eve)
* Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and
* Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia)
Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between
writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional
historians who came after him
•Another work of importance in this period is
Yilma Deressa’s Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra
Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemenb (A History of Ethiopia in
16th C). This book addresses the Oromo
population movement & wars between the
Christian kingdom & Muslim sultanates as its main
subjects.
Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel :-
wrote Zikre Neger. Zikre Neger is a comprehensive
account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems
& taxation
• Another writer of the same category was Dejazmach
Kebede Tesema. Kebede wrote memoir of imperial
period or Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C
• The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development
of Ethiopian historiography for it was in this period
that history emerged as an academic discipline.
• The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time
occupation began with the opening of Department
of History in 1963 at the Haile Selassie I University
(HSIU)
• The production of BA theses began towards the end
of the decade.
• The Department launched its MA and PhD programs
in 1979 and 1990 respectively
• Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) :- institutional home of
professional historiography of Ethiopia. IES was founded in
1963
• Richard Pankhurst is the first Director founding member of
IES. Since its foundation, the IES has been publishing
Journal of Ethiopian Studies for dissemination of historical
research.
• Professionalization of history is post-colonial phenomenon.
Africans begun the works in this era with new methodology.
Key Elements to Study History:-
 Critical Evaluation of Sources:- Primary and secondary
Objectivity writing without bias, for/against
Chronology
Interpretation careful analysis, checking the reliability ,
authenticity .
Avoiding interpretation / wrong/
Avoiding Subjectivity (Siding)
 1.4. The Geographical Context
The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that
part of Northeast Africa, which contains the
countries : -
* Djibouti * Eritrea,
* Ethiopia, and * Somalia
•Diversity of the terrain led to regional
variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil
composition, & settlement patterns of the horn
•Regions’ Geography has impact on the way
people live & organize themselves into
societies.
•Spatial location in relationship to other spaces
& locations in the world is one geographical
• Ethiopia & Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of
Aden and Indian Ocean.
• Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast Africa
to the Eastern Mediterranean,
• Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the Near and
Middle East, India and the Far East
• Drainage system Another element of geography
factor that had profound impact on human history
• . Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage
systems:-
• These are : - Nile River, * Gibe/Omo–Gojeb,
* Genale/Jubba-Shebele, * Awash River,and
* Ethiopian Rift Valley
• Drainage systems facilitated the movement of
peoples and goods across diverse environments,
• results in the exchange of ideas, technology,
knowledge,
cultural expressions, and beliefs.
• Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major
distinct environmental zones
• Eastern lowland covers the narrow coastal strip of
northeastern Eritrea
• include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the Danakil
Depression, the lower Awash valley
• highland massif starts from northern Eritrea &
continues all the way to southern Ethiopia.
• consists the Arsi, Bale and Hararghe plateau
• Rift valley is the major divide between the
western and eastern parts of this zone
• The major physiographic features of the zone
are complex of mountains, deep valleys, and
extensive plateaus.
• Countries of Horn of Africa are, for the most
part, linguistically and ethnically linked
together.

THE END!
 UNIT TWO
PEOPLES & CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA & HORN
A. Biological Evolution
Evolution is a process & gradual change in species
over time which passed through genes.
Mammal primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla,
chimpanzee, etc.). Others evolved into Hominidae (human
ancestors) through natural process after 170 million years.

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 2.1. Human Evolution
 East African Rift Valley is regarded as a cradle of
humanity. Various archaeological evidences proof this
argument. Examples of fossils discovered in Ethiopia (name
of the fossil, age, place & age of discovery):-
i. Chororapithecus- 10 million., Anchar/West Hararghe, 2007.
ii. Ardipithicus ramidus- 4. 2 mill B.P., Aramis in Afar, 1994.
iii. Australopithecus afarensis, Selam- 3.3 million years B.P,
Dikika, Mille (Afar),2000.
iv. Australopithecus Afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh)- c. 3.18 mill
years B. P.), Hadar (Afar) in 1974 A. D. Lucy was bipedal.
v. Australopithecus garhi-2.5 million B.P., at Bouri, Middle
Awash B/N 1996 and 1999.
vi. Australopithecus anamensis :-discovered on Lake
Turkana. 25
Genus Homo- (Homo Habilis , Erectus , Sapiens)
- Result of the development of human brain. Emerged
2-2.5 million years B.P. Fossils found in Ethiopia & Horn
include:-
i.Homo Habilis :- skillful use of hands & oldest.
- dated 1.9 ml years B. P. Found in Lower Omo.
ii. Homo erectus- walking upright, dated 1.6 million
years B. P. They invented fire & started burials.
Fossils discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso, Gardula &
Gadeb.
Originated in Africa; then spread out to the world.

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iii. Homo sapiens - knowledgeable human being
 Archaic Homo Sapiens dated 400, 000 years B.P.).
 Homo sapiens idaltu- 160, 000 years B.P
 Homo Sapiens Sapiens- 100, 000 years B.P.
 Major centers of human evolution in Ethiopia :- Lower
Omo and Middle Awash valleys.
B. Cultural Evolution
 Technological changes that brought socio-
economic transformation on human life.
 Ages:- Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
 Stone tools were first technologies developed.

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Stone tools grouped in to three:-
a.Mode I (Olduwan)-were crude and mono-facial.
made and used by homo habilis.
 produced by the direct percussion. Dated 2.52 mill years
b. Mode II (Acheulean): were bifacial. Invented by homo erectus
• Dated back to 1.7.million years B.P.
• Produced by indirect percussion, hammering.
c. Mode III (Sangoon): flexible and finest tools.
 produced by homo sapiens.
Sangoon (named after Sango Bay in Uganda).
Stone Age divided into : Paleolithic, Mesolithic & Neolithic.
i.Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)-3.4 million to 11, 000 B. P.
Humans developed language
 sheltered in cave
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used stone, bone, wood, furs, & skin materials to
prepare food & clothing.
Labor Division was begun. :- able-bodied males as
hunters of fauna ; children and females as gatherers of
flora.
ii. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age )-11, 000-10,000 B. P.
Transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic.
Oldest evidence of stone tool in world) was found at
Dikika
iii. Neolithic (New Stone Age) Neolithic Revolution.
 Humans Shifted from Hunting-Gathering to
domestication plants & animals.
Domestication of plants and animals was major feature.
Sedentary way of life & mobile settlement was ended
Agriculture was started. People invented tools. 29
Neolithic revolution in Ethiopia:-
• Many flora (plants) and fauna(animals) were
domesticated. The 1st domesticated plants;- in
Ethiopia. Example:- Teff, dagussa , nug , enset … etc
• Manifestations: Many material remains ;- polished
axes, ceramics , grinding stones, remains of
animals(cattle & camel)
 Sites (places) of domestication of plants and
animals in Africa Horn include:- Emba-Fakeda in
Tigray
Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea ; Gobedra near Aksum
- Lalibela Cave on Lake Tana ; Laga Oda near Charchar
- Lake Basaqa near Matahara
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 2.3 The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
 Ethiopia and the Horn is marked by ethnic and
linguistic diversity & unity.
 Languages of Ethiopia & Horn :- Afro-Asiatic and
Nilo-Saharan language super families.
Afro-Asiatic: divided into Cushitic, Semitic and
Omotic language families.
Nilo-Saharan :- Chari-Nile & Koman language.
• 2. Semitic: is divided as North & south Semitic.
• North Semetic:- Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken at
Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (Eritrean Lowland);
Tigrigna (highland Eritrea and Tigray).
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• South: is divided into two (Outer South Semetic &
Transverse South Semetic.)
• Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage & Mesmes
(endangered).
• 3. Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa,
Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda,
Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
• Why Language status & classification did not remain
static ?
 b/c affected by factors like population movements,
warfare, trade, religious & territorial expansion,
urbanization etc. Then have affected languages
(some died out or in danger of extinction, others
thrived). 32
 2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
 Settlement pattern is shaped by environmental,
socio-economic, and political processes.
 Cushites-Red :- largest linguistic group in the region.
They spread over wide areas from Sudan to
Tanzania.
 Semites-settled in the northern, north central,
northeastern, south central and eastern part.
 Omotic Peoples- majority south western Ethiopia
along Omo River except Shinasha & Anfillo.
 Nilotes- mainly found along Ethio-Sudanese border.
2.3.3. Economic Formations
• Domestication of plants & animals gave humanity
interdependent modes of life: agriculture and
pastoralism. 33
• Other economic activities:- Fishing, handicraft, trade,
etc.
• Highland area :- sedentary agriculture or mixed
farming.
 Practiced by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic people.
 Eastern lowland:- mainly pastoralism
 Western lowlands:- pastoralism, shifting
agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting.
2.4 Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
• Indigenous religious :- beliefs and practices, native to
the region & practiced since ancient times.
• A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is: belief in
one Supreme Being & special power to natural
phenomena.

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1. Waqeffanna of the Oromo :
 based on existence of one Supreme Being called
Waqa.
• Waqa's power is manifested by spirits called Ayyana.
• Major spirits based on Waqeffanna:-
• Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit) - Atete (fertility spirit)
• Balas (victory spirit)
• Chato/Dora (wild animals defender)
Ekera: a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost
Irrecha :- thanks giving festival ,besides New Year (Birbo) rite.
Qallu & Qallitti (female):maintained link b/n Ayyana &
believers.
Galma:- Qallu ritual house
Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) : make pilgrimage to
get consecration of senior qallu (Abba Muda). Abba Muda
had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at center
and white at bottom.

35
2. Hadya: Supreme Being is known as Waa, whose eyes
are represented by elincho (sun) & agana (moon).
 Spirits :- Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard)
attracted prayers sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo
mountains.
 Itto and Albaja :- well-known spiritual leaders credited
to introduce Fandancho.
3. Kambata:
 Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God.
Magnancho :Religious officials
4. Gedeo:- Mageno(Supreme Being),
- Deraro:- thanks giving ceremony.
5. Konso religion centered on worship of.
Waaq/Wakh 36
6.Gojjam Agew
Diban:- Supreme Being / Sky God.
7. Gurage:- Waq/Goita (Supreme Being),
 Bozha (thunder deity) & Damwamwit (health goddess).
 Gurage & Yem had a common deity known as Abba at
Enar (Henar).
8. Yem :- Ha’o (Sky God).
So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties
9. Konta’s :- Docho (spirit-cult).
10. Wolayta :-
Tosa (Xoossaa)- God Tosa & Ayyana (spirit)
• Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit),
• Micho (goat spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit).

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• Dufuwa (grave) was abode of Moytiliya (father’s spirit).
• Mita: Sacred place of annual worship of spirits
• sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta
(Dubusha) offered there.
• Chaganna (prohibited days to work). Beka:- chose and
kept dark brown heifer . (Literally, ritual cattle) as
birthday fate.
• Sharechuwa :- Religious practitioners
• Becha or Kra Eza Keta (ritual house).
11. Keficho’s :-
Yero:- Supreme Being. Eqo :- the spirit.
Alamo/ eke-Ayano : A person who hosts.
Father of all spirits dochi sat at Adiyo.
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• Damochechi of Channa, yaferochi of Sharada &
wogidochi of Adio :- local spirits . Dugo clan led
spiritual services.
12. Boro-Shinasha
 Iqa: super natural power. Rituals performed through
slaughtering animals.
Gure Shuka :- public prayer rituals.
13. Nuer : Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven).
• Rain, lightning thunder, rainbow, sun, moon and other
entities are manifestations or signs of God.
39
Indigenous religion elements:-
prescribe praying for the prevention of:
• drought, flooding, erosion,
• disease & starvation within community
• Rituals are led by recognized elders, their pray
and bless are trusted to reach God.
• Practices & beliefs of indigenous religion are
fused with Christianity & Islam.
• Syncretism:- mixing of religions

40
 2.4.2. Judaism
Judaism in Ethiopia & Horn noticed in the 4th c AD,
when Bete-Israel refused to be converted to
Christianity.
• Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot that differs from
Rabbinic Judaism.
• Dan tribe migrated to Ethiopia at Exodus after death
of King Solomon .
• Menilek I, believed to be son of Solomon & Makeda,
Queen of Saba.
• 6th C, Jews led by Azonos & Phinhas, to Ethiopia.
• They intermarried with Agaws & known as Bete-
Israel.
41
• They lived in northern & northwestern Ethiopia
 2.4.3. Christianity
Before Christianity, northern part of Ethiopia were
polytheists (worship many gods):-
• Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god),
• Arwe (serpent-python god),
• Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god)
Aedesius and Frementius :- Syrian brothers, converted
King Ezana (r. 320-360) into Christianity.
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D.
• Atnatewos of Alexandria (328-373) consecrated
Frementius as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox
Church (EOC).
• Abune Baslios (1959): 1st Ethiopian Patriarch
anointed.

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 Nine Saints who came from Mediterranean world
spread Christianity to the interior.
 Nine Saints translated the bible into Geez and
founded monasteries.
 Expansion continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270).
 It got fresh momentum during the Medieval Period
(1270-1527)
 Churches and monasteries served as repositories
of manuscripts and precious objects of art.
 Later, Jesuits (Society of Jesus or catholic
missionaries) tried to convert Monophysite(only one
nature) EOC to Dyophysite (2 nature- divine &
human)Catholic. This brought religious
controversies in EOC.
43
Both Catholic & Protestant missionaries
preached their respective treaties in Ethiopia and
the Horn.
Protestants, were systematic in preaching their
faith in the region. Protestants adopted old
names for Supreme Being and used them as
equivalent to God.
They established schools open to all children of
chiefs & farmers.
2.3.4. Islam
 Prophet Mohammed preached Islam in Mecca
since 610 AD.
 Prophet faced opposition from Quraysh rulers.
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• Armah Ella Seham (Ahmed al-Nejash), gave the
refugees asylum from 615-628 A.D.
Islam spread to Horn of Africa through peaceful
ways including trade.
Muslims settled on the Red Sea coasts.
 Islam spread among communities of the interior,
largely through the agency of preachers and
merchants.
 Dahlak route played a role in introduction of Islam
into the interior.
 Zeila port on coast of Gulf of Aden served as the
most important gateway.

45
• Sheikh Hussein (Muslim saint) of Bale spread Islam
into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of
Ethiopia & Horn.
• Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th
c AD. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava &
Merca.
• Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu
Minirate c.1269.
• Mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers
have been depositories of cultures, traditions &
literature of local Muslims.

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