1.

Introduction

It is a proven fact that Ethiopia is the birthplace of mankind through archaeology findings.
Beyond its large land and population size, Ethiopia is a country with ethnic and religious
diversity. One of such diversified ethnic group is Oromo. This short article looks at the origin
and route of the movement of the Oromo population, as well as its results.

One of the historical traces in the history of Ethiopia is the era of Zemene Mesafint. This
period, which lasted from the middle of the 18th century to the middle of the 19th century, is
referred to as the time when Ethiopia was divided into fragmented regions and rulers were in
power. It was also a time when there was no central government lo lead the country. In this
short article, we will take a look at the basic characteristics of this era.

Aksum dynasty was a dynasty that was able to influence the region. It was a dynasty with
huge historical legacies. In this article we explore the beginning and end of the dynasty.

Ethiopians marched together and defeated the invading Italian army and wrote an epic story.
This bitter victory is not only for Ethiopia but also for Africans. It is also a shining victory
that is a source of shining pride for black people. This article analyzes what was the reason
for the war and why it was called a source of black pride.

And finally the article will briefly take a look at the reform and foreign policy of Ethiopia
during the period of Emperror Tewodros II.

2. Objective

The objectivee of this article is to analyze the few parts of Ethiopian history with specially
emphasis on the movement of the Oromo people, the rise and fall of the Aksum dynasty, the
characteristics of Zemene Mesafint era and the foreign policy of Ethiopia during the era of
Emperor Tewodros II.

3. The cause, course and results of Oromo population movement.

The Oromo people are an ethnic group native to the Horn of Africa. They are believed to
have originated from the southern highlands of present-day Ethiopia and migrated to their
current locations over several centuries. There are various theories about the reasons for their
migration. Some scholars suggest that it was driven by population pressure and conflicts over
land and resources. Others argue that it was driven by economic factors such changes in the
availability of pasture and water. The main factors for the Oromo population movement and
expansion are listed here
 3.1. The main factors for the Oromo population movement and expansion

- The prevalence of war and chaos in the Horn of Africa in the second half of the 15th
and the early 16th centuries.

- The changing of the natural environment of the Oromo homeland. For example,
climatic changes.

- The growing number of the population of the Oromo.

- The search for pasture for their growing cattle.

3.2. Directions and course of the Oromo Population Movement

Before the beginning of their movement, the Oromo people categorized into the Barentu and
the Borana confederacies. Both confederacies were the combinations of smaller divisions and
clans. The Borana confederacy comprises Mecha, Tulama, southern Borana and Guji clans.
As far as the Barentu confideracy was concerned, it includes Karayu, Marawa, Ittu,
Humbana, Akachu, Wollo and Arsi clans. The Oromo population movement and expansion
believed to have started around 1522 and lasted until 1618. The movement was carried out in
two major directions in the Ethiopian region. Accordingly, the Barentu spread from north to
the south and the Borana moved from north to west. - The movement also went as far as
Kenya and Somalia. The Oromo population movement had two stages. During the first stage
which was in the first half of the 16th century, the movement was small and slow. The
second stage witnessed a large- scale movement and it took place from the mid-16 th century
till1618.

3.3. Consequences of the Oromo population movement

- Following the Oromo population movement and expansion, the Oromo began to settle
in the new areas they expanded.

- The appearance of ethnic and cultural intermingling between the Oromo and the
conquered peoples.

- The weakening of the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal was also partially
attributed to the outcome of the Oromo population movement and expansion.
 - As far as the Oromo people were concerned, following their expansion, the Oromo
started to run sedentary way of life and became agriculturalists.

- The Oromo’s conversion into Christianity and Islam was also evident after their
expansion and movement.

4. The basic characteristics of Zemene Mesafint

Zemene Mesafint is a period in Ethiopian history between the mid-eighteenth and mid-
nineteenth centuries, when the country is de facto divided within itself into several regions
with no effective central authority.

It is a period in which the Emperors from the Solomonic dynasty ire reduced to little more
than figureheads confined to the capital city of Gondar.

According to a number of historical accounts Zemene-Mesafint was characterized as

follows:

- Ethiopia was divided into several regions with no effective central authority. In other
words, the monarchial state was collapsed or disintegrated.
- The monarchs continued only in name/ puppet. Due to the growing power and
influences of the regional warlords the monarchs totally lost their authority.
- The regional lords constantly fought with each other for aggrandizement of their
territory and to become the guardian of the king of kings at Gondar.
- Coalitions and alliance between regional lords were constantly formed and dissolved.
- The internal crisis further aggravated by the doctrinal divisions and controversy
within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was divided in to disputant sects.

5. The rise, expansion and the decline of Aksumite dynasty.

Kingdom of Aksum, a powerful state that thrived from roughly 100-940 CE in Africa, was
one of the most important kingdoms you've never heard of. Located near modern-day
Ethiopia and Eritrea along the Red Sea, Aksum was a major trading nation. By this, we
mean that its economy was almost entirely dependent on export and international trade.
Aksum was a major facilitator of trade in the ancient world, responsible for moving goods
between the eastern and western worlds that came from civilizations as distant as Rome and
India. Just to give you an idea about what an important trading center this was, the capital
city of Aksum is considered one of the potential resting places of the Ark of the Covenant.

5.1. The rise of Aksumite dynasty.

The kingdom of Aksum reached its peak power between the third and sixth centuries C.E. In
those years, it was a prosperous, stratified society, with divisions ranging from high nobles,
lower status members of the elite classes, and common folk. The city of Aksum grew in
population, size, and the complexity of its development, while smaller towns and rural
villages sprang up in surrounding areas. The kingdom exercised administrative and economic
control over a swath of territory encompassing Tigray and northern Eritrea, the desert, coastal
plains to the south and east, and much of the Red Sea coast (in present-day Djibouti and
Somalia).

Aksum also enlarged its territory through warfare. Led by King Ezana

I, Aksumites conquered the city-state of Meroe (part of present-day Sudan) in the early fourth
century C.E. In the sixth century, the Aksumite King Kaleb sent a force across the Red Sea to
subdue the Yemenites, subjugating them as vassals for several decades. The Roman emperor
at Byzantium supported Aksum in this venture, largely in retaliation for Yemen’s persecution
of Christians.

5.2. Decline of Aksumite dynasty

The kingdom’s power had eroded entirely by the end of the eighth century. One reason for its
decline was the migration of the nomadic Beja peoples into the area; their
independent herding activities threatened Aksum’s territorial dominance. The Aksumites lost
their hold on southern Arabia, and the Persians subsequently conquered Yemen around 578
C.E. The decisive blow was the ascendance of the Arab Muslims, who became the region’s
dominant power in the seventh century and assumed naval control of the Red Sea. The loss of
mercantile revenue undermined the capacity of Aksum’s nobility to hold an expanded state
together. Environmental factors, most notably the degradation of soils from overuse and a
decline in the abundance of rainfall, created additional pressures.

Political power shifted to a new group of elites, the Agau people, who instituted the Zagwe
Dynasty based in the city of Lalibela.
 6. The battle of Adwa: the cause and the reason to be stated as the pride of belack
people

6.1. The cause of the battle of Adwa

Ethiopia was treacherously tricked and forced into a war with Italian colonialists due to the
fact that Italy deliberately created a difference in meaning between the Amharic version and
the Italian text of Article 17 of the Treaty of Wuchale which forces Ethiopia to conduct any
foreign relations with other countries only through the Italian Government.

The treaty says:” his Majesty the King of Kings of Ethiopia can use the Government of His
Majesty the King of Italy for all treatments that did business with other powers or
governments.”

Consequently, Emperor Menelik II called upon the peoples of Ethiopia to defend their
country and Ethiopians, where many thousands of peasant soldiers of all walks of life and
ethnic groups responded to the call, swarming into battle fields.

The desire of the Ethiopians to maintain its independence and sovereignty.

6.2. Why was the battle of Adwa an African victory and a source pride to all
black people throughout the world?

It was the first African nation to defeat a colonial power. Furthermore, it promoted the act of
independence movements in the continent. Adwa turned Ethiopia into the symbol of
redemption and freedom for black people. Adwa connected black people with Africa’s
ancient glory and future hope.

Adwa laid the foundation for Pan-Africanism to unite all Africans to fight colonialism and
apartheid, the same values of dignity, pride, self-worth, agency and freedom are needed also
to realize the African renaissance today by enabling Africa to emerge as an independent,
strong and proud leader rather than mere follower of former colonial powers. 

The green, yellow and red Ethiopian flag was adopted by several African countries after
colonial liberation and a universal national anthem was created for black people.

7. Analyze the reform and foreign policy of Ethiopia during the period of Tewodros

II (1955-1868)
 Foreign Policy during Tewodros II (1855-1868)

• He wanted to create a united Ethiopia.

• He introduced the idea of modernity and modern army at the time.

• He tried to develop a dynamic foreign policy that reached out beyond the Horn
Region.

• He sought the Western Christian world to recognize his country and help him to
modernize his country.

• He tried to use Christianity as instrument of foreign policy.

• His foreign contact with Britain was the reason that finally led him to conflict and his
suicidal death.