B.4 - Thermodynamics (HL) - Teacher

Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter
B.4 – Thermodynamics (HL)

Guiding Questions:
• How can energy transfers and energy storage
within a system be analysed?
• How can the future evolution of a system be
determined?
• In what way is entropy fundamental to the evolution
of the universe?
Option B :Engineering physics
B.2 – Thermodynamics
Understandings:
• the first law of thermodynamics results from the
application of conservation of energy to a closed
system and relates the internal energy of a system to
the transfer of energy as heat and as work
• the work done by or on a closed system when its
boundaries are changed can be described in terms of
pressure and changes of volume of the system
• the change in internal energy of a system is related to
the change of its temperature
• entropy S is a thermodynamic quantity that relates to
the degree of disorder of the particles in a system
Understandings:
• entropy can be determined in terms of macroscopic
quantities such as thermal energy and temperature
and also in terms of the properties of individual
particles of the system
• that the second law of thermodynamics refers to the
change in entropy of an isolated system and sets
constraints on possible physical processes and on
the overall evolution of the system
• processes in real isolated systems are almost always
irreversible and consequently the entropy of a real
isolated system always increases
Understandings:
• the entropy of a non-isolated system can decrease
locally, but this is compensated by an equal or
greater increase of the entropy of the surroundings
• isovolumetric, isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic
processes are obtained by keeping one variable fixed
• adiabatic processes in monatomic ideal gases can be
modelled
• cyclic gas processes are used to run heat engines
• a heat engine can respond to different cycles and is
characterized by its efficiency
• that the Carnot cycle sets a limit for the efficiency of a
heat engine at the temperatures of its heat reservoirs
Guidance:
• A closed system is understood to be one in which no
mass can be transferred in or out, but energy can be
transferred in both directions as heat or as work.
• An isolated system is understood to be one in which
neither mass nor energy can be transferred in or out.
• Problems will use the Clausius’ sign convention
where Q is the resultant thermal energy supplied to
the system and W is the resultant work done by the
system.
• The second law of thermodynamics should be
described in Clausius form and Kelvin form, as well
as in terms of entropy change in reversible and
irreversible processes occurring in isolated systems.
Guidance:
• Work done on a system is taken to be negative.
• Work done by a system is taken to be positive.
• In quantitative problems, systems will be limited to
monatomic ideal gases, including situations where
pressure is not constant.
• The microstates of a system are equally probable
and can be described in a simple combinatorial
model (for example, based on coins).
Data booklet reference:
Linking Questions:
• What are the consequences of the second law of
thermodynamics to the universe as a whole?
• Why is there an upper limit on the efficiency of any
energy source or engine?
• How are efficiency considerations important in motors
and generators?
• What paradigm shifts enabling change to human
society, such as harnessing the power of steam, can
be attributed to advancements in physics
understanding? (NOS)
Internal Energy
Materials have internal energy, U.
This is the KE of random motions of atoms + PE due to
forces between atoms
Energy is also
stored as
Can be modeled as vibrational,
vibrating springs joining rotational and
atoms to each other in translational
solids or within molecules motions
Internal Energy
Materials have internal energy, U.
This is the KE of random motions of atoms + PE due to
forces between atoms.
U is the sum of all KE and PE of atoms/molecules in the

material. U is the change of internal energy.
If U > 0 then internal energy has increased

If U < 0 then internal energy has decreased
Internal Energy
Without proof, for each “degree of freedom” (different
direction in 3D space) an atom or molecule can store
energy:
With 3-dimensional space, there are 3 degrees of

freedom of movement, so for an ideal gas with N
particles:
FYI
In polyatomic gases the molecules can store energy in rotations,
and vibrations, as well as translations and this adds more degrees
of freedom increasing the internal energy at a given temperature
so that complex gases are slower to warm up.
Internal Energy
For a monatomic gas, assuming the amount of gas is
not changing, this means that any change in internal
energy must be a result of a proportional change in
absolute temperature:
This gives us the expected result:

The Laws of Thermodynamics
A note on language:
Heat is NOT Internal Energy
Heat is the flow of thermal energy from one object to
another and will increase the internal energy of the
receiver and decrease the internal energy of the donor.
HEAT more random motion (<KE>) higher temperature

HEAT stretched bonds  higher PE, without changing T
This is similar to saying work is not mechanical energy.

Work is the transfer of mechanical energy from one
object to another.
The 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Energy is conserved – it is neither created not
destroyed
Internal energy of a system may change as any
combination of
(i) Doing work on the system
(ii) Transferring energy to or from the system as a
result of a difference in temperature
𝑄=∆𝑈 +𝑊 Thermal energy supplied to a gas
When , energy transferred from surroundings to the
system because Tsurroundings > Tsystem
If there has been an increase in internal energy
If work is done by system on the environment as is
expands
B.3 – Gas Laws
EXAMPLE:
A heater adds 1000 J of thermal energy to a gas
syringe. At the same time, 400 J of work is done by the
gas in the syringe on moving it’s plunger out. What is
the change in the system's internal energy?
SOLUTION:
What would it mean if is negative?

What would it mean if is negative? What about ?
Using the 1st Law of Thermodynamics
A system can change its state. A state is a unique set of
values for P, V, n, & T. This is why PV = nRT is also
called a “State Equation”
There are 4 basic processes with n constant:

• Isobaric, a change at constant pressure
• Isochoric or isovolumetric, a change at constant
volume, W = 0
• Isothermal, a change at constant temperature
(U = 0)
• Adiabatic, a change at no heat (Q = 0)
Let’s examine these from the perspective of the 1st law.
Work done in an isobaric change
Isobaric = constant pressure
As the gas expands, the piston moves up

by a distance d.
As a result, volume increases
The force of the gas on piston
The work done by the gas on the

surroundings:
B.3 – Gas Laws
Constant pressure process – isobaric process
In an isobaric process, p does not change.
As an example of an isobaric experiment,
suppose we take a beaker that is filled with
an ideal gas, and stopper it with a gas-tight,
frictionless cork and a weight, as shown.
The weight F causes a pressure in the
gas having a value given by p = F / A, ∆V x
A in
where A is the area of the cork
contact with the gas.
If we now heat up the gas it will expand
against the cork, pushing it upward:
Since neither F nor A change, p remains
constant.
B.3 – Gas Laws
Constant pressure process – work done by a gas
From the previous slide: .
From the picture note that V = Ax.
Recall the work W done by the gas is just
F
the force F it exerts on the weighted cork
times the displacement x it moves the
cork. Thus
W = Fx = pAx = pV. ∆V x
A
W = p∆V work done by expanding
gas (constant p)
FYI
If ∆V > 0 (gas expands) then W > 0.
If ∆V < 0 (gas contracts) then W < 0.
B.3 – Gas Laws
Constant pressure process – isobaric process
EXAMPLE: Show that for an isolated ideal gas V  T
during an isobaric process.
SOLUTION: Use . Then
.
Isolated means n is constant (no gas is added to or
lost from the system).
Isobaric means p is constant.
Then n and P are constant (as is R). Thus
. ( isobaric process )
FYI - This relationship is known as Charles’ Law

Work done in an isothermal change
Isothermal = constant temperature
For an ideal gas, internal energy equals the sum of

mean kinetic energy of particles of gas (
We also know that the average kinetic energy is
proportional to the temperature of the gas
So, if T is constant, Internal energy = constant
For with
If , work done by system on surroundings
→ expansion of gas does work
If work done by surroundings on system
→ gas compresses due to work being
done on it
B.3 – Gas Laws
Constant temperature process –isothermal process
In an isothermal process, T does not change.
EXAMPLE: A graduated syringe which is filled with air is
placed in an ice bath and allowed to reach the
temperature of the water. Demonstrate that
10 20
p1V1 = p2V2 (aka Boyle’s Law).
0 30
SOLUTION:
Record initial states after a wait:
p1 = 15, V1 = 10, and T1 = 0ºC.
Record final states after a wait:
p2 = 30, V2 = 5, and T2 = 0ºC.
p1V1 = 15(10) = 150. Why do we
wait before
p2V2 = 30(5) = 150. recording our
values?
Thus p V = p V .
B.3 – Gas Laws
Constant temperature process –isothermal process
PRACTICE:
Show that for an isolated ideal gas p1V1 = p2V2 during an
isothermal process.
SOLUTION:
From pV = nRT we can write
p1V1 = nRT1
p2V2 = nRT2.
Isolated means n is constant.
Isothermal means T is constant so T1 = T2 = T.
Obviously R is constant.
Thus
p V = nRT = p V . ( isothermal )
Work done in an isovolumetric change
Isovolumetric = constant volume
When V = constant then NO work can be done (Why?)
For with
If , there is an increase of internal energy of

system → temperature goes up
If , there is a decrease of internal energy of
system → temperature goes down
B.3 – Gas Laws
Constant volume process – isovolumetric process
In an isovolumetric process, V does not change.
We have already seen an isovolumetric experiment
when we studied the concept of absolute zero:
During an isovolumetric process the
temperature and the pressure change.
Note that the volume was kept constant in
this experiment.
p
10 20
0 30
T (°C)
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
B.3 – Gas Laws
Constant volume process – isovolumetric process
EXAMPLE:
Show that for an isolated ideal gas p  T during an
isovolumetric process.
SOLUTION: Use . Then
.
Isolated means n is constant (no gas is added to or
lost from the system).
Isovolumetric means that V is constant.
Then n and V are constant (as is R). Thus
. ( isovolumetric process )
FYI Isovolumetric is sometimes called isochoric.

Work done in an adiabatic process
In an adiabatic process, no energy is supplied to the
system. Instead the work done directly results in
changes to the internal energy.
Adiabatic = no energy is transferred ()
For with
If , temperature of the gas drops as work is done

on the surroundings
If , temperature of the gas rises as work is done
by the surroundings
B.3 – Gas Laws
Work done in an adiabatic process
Without proof, there is a relationship between pressure
and volume in an adiabatic process for a monatomic
ideal gas
5
3 Thermal energy supplied to a gas
𝑃 𝑉 =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
EXAMPLE:
The volume of an ideal monatomic gas is reduced in an
adiabatic compression by a factor of 8.0. Determine the
factor by which the pressure in the gas changes.
SOLUTION:
5 5
3 3
𝑃 1 𝑉 =𝑃 2 𝑉 ⇒
1 2
Credit Hodder Text p. 266
Heat Cycles
In a heat cycle, a system goes through several changes
as a result of work being done.
Credit Pearson Text p.224
A→B – isovolumetric temperature increase

B→C – isobaric expansion
C→D – isovolumetric temperature decrease
D→A – isobaric compression
Work is done by the gas on the surroundings from B→C
and the opposite from D→A. However, mor work is
done BY the gas than ON the gas. (How do we know?)
Heat Engines

Heat Engines
During a thermal process, there will always be energy
loss, so the energy flow can be represented as in the
diagram. This lead to the idea of thermal efficiency.
If the internal energy of the hot gas is Qh,
and the cold gas is Qc, W represented the
useful work done by the engine.
Therefore
Since ,
= Thermodynamic
efficiency
Carnot cycles
An idealized version of a thermodynamic cycle is a
reversible, 4-stage cycle known as a Carnot cycle. For a
Carnot cycle the efficiency of an engine is a theoretical
maximum, based on the laws of physics and not based
on energy losses in the system. 𝑇
For a Carnot cycle, 𝜂 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡=1 −
𝑇
𝑐
Carnot cycle
h
efficiency
Credit Hodder
Text p.269
B.3 – Gas Laws
EXAMPLE:
Determine the theoretical thermodynamic efficiencies of
Carnot cycles operating between the temperatures of:
a) 100℃ and 20℃ Credit Hodder Text p.270
b) 500℃ and 100℃

c) 200℃ and -200℃
SOLUTION:
a)
b)
c)
What do these results tell you?
B.3 – Gas Laws
Sketching and interpreting state change graphs
Perhaps you have enjoyed the pleasures
z
of analytic geometry and the graphing of
surfaces in 3D.
The three variables of a surface are y
x, y, and z, and we can describe any
surface using the "state" variables
x, y, and z: x
The “equation of state” of a sphere

is x2 + y2 + z2 = r2, where r is the radius of the sphere.
FYI
We “built” the 3D sphere with layers of 2D circles.
We have transformed a 3D surface into a stack of 2D
surfaces.
B.3 – Gas Laws p

The three state variables of a
gas (if n is kept constant) are
analogous.
T T4
We can plot the three variables T2 3
p, V, and T on mutually T1
perpendicular axes like this:
T
We have made layers in T. Thus p
iso
each layer has a single temperature. th
er
m
s T4
FYI T3
T T 2
Each layer is an isotherm. 1 V
The 3D graph (above) can then be redrawn in its
simpler 2D form (below) without loss of information.
B.3 – Gas Laws
A thermodynamic process involves moving from one
state to another state. This could involve changing any
or even all of the state variables (p, V, or T).
EXAMPLE: In the p-V graph shown, identify each
process type as ISOBARIC, ISOTHERMAL, OR
ISOVOLUMETRIC (isochoric). p A
iso
SOLUTION: th
er
AB is isothermal (constant T). m
BC is isobaric (constant p). B
C
CA is isochoric (constant V).
isot D
We will only have two states h erm
change at a time. Phew! V
FYI The purple line shows all three states changing.

B.3 – Gas Laws
EXAMPLE: An internal combustion engine is an
example of a heat engine that does useful work on the
environment. A four-stroke engine is animated here.
This example illustrates how a gas can be made to do
work and illustrates a thermodynamic cycle.
http://www.animatedengines.com/otto.html
http://chemcollective.org/activities/simulations/engine
B.3 – Gas Laws
A thermodynamic cycle is a set of processes which
ultimately return a gas to its original state.
EXAMPLE: A fixed quantity of a gas undergoes a cycle
by changing between the following three states:
State A: (p = 2 Pa, V = 10 m3) p
State B: (p = 8 Pa, V = 10 m3)
B C
State C: (p = 8 Pa, V = 25 m3) 8
Each process is a straight line, and
the cycle goes like this: ABCA.
2 A
Sketch the complete cycle on a p-V
V
diagram. 10 25
SOLUTION:
Scale your axes and plot your points…
B.3 – Gas Laws
EXAMPLE: A fixed quantity of a gas undergoes the
cycle shown here (from the last example):
(a) Find the work done during the process AB.
(b) Find the work done during the process BC.
SOLUTION: Use W = pV. p
(a) From A to B:
V = 0. Thus the W = 0. 8 B C
(b) From B to C:
V = 25 – 10 = 15;
2 A
p = 8.
V
Thus W = pV = 8(15) = 120 J. 10 25
B.3 – Gas Laws
(c) Find the work done during the process CA.
SOLUTION:
Observe that ∆V is negative when p
going from C (V = 25) to A (V = 10).
Observe that p is NOT constant 8 B C
so W  p∆V.
W = .
= 2 A
= - 75 J. V
10 25
B.3 – Gas Laws
(d) Find the work done during the cycle ABCA.
SOLUTION:
(d) Just total up the work done p
in each process.
WAB = 0 J. 8 B C
WBC = +120 J.
WCA = -75 J. 2 A
Wcycle = 0 + 120 – 75 = +45 J. V
10 25
FYI Because Wcycle is positive, work is done on the
external environment during each cycle.
B.3 – Gas Laws
PRACTICE:
Find the total work done if the previous cycle is
reversed.
SOLUTION:
We want the cycle ACBA. p
WAC = Area
B C
= J. 8
WCB = J.
WBA = J (since ). 2 A
Wcycle = J. V
10 25
FYI Reversing the cycle reverses the sign of the
work.
B.3 – Gas Laws
Fixed mass and constant volume means n and V are

constant. Thus
   . (**LINEAR**)
Since the t axis is in ºC, but T is in Kelvin, the
horizontal intercept must be NEGATIVE…
B.3 – Gas Laws
at absolute From :

zero. :
Reversed Processes (Heat Pumps)
When the process is reversed, we have how a
refrigerator works.
Credit Pearson
Text p.226
From C→B, heat is absorbed by the hot object. That

heat came from the cold object in A→D. So a cold
object is giving heat to a hot object. This can only
happen because in D→C, work was done on the gas.
Refrigeration
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Kelvin version:
It is impossible to extract energy from a hot reservoir
and transfer this entirely into work
Clausius version:
It is impossible for energy to spontaneously transfer
from a body at a lower temperature to one at higher
temperature without doing work on the system.
The 2nd law of thermodynamics:

In every process, the total entropy of any isolated
system, or the Universe, always increases
The natural way of nature is for things to tend toward
disorder.
Can the room become ordered again?

If yes, what would be the conditions for it to become
more ordered?
The natural way of nature is for things to tend toward
disorder.
Credit Hodder Text p.274
Can the particles become more ordered again?

If yes, what would be the conditions for them to become
more ordered?
Lower Entropy Higher Entropy
Solid Liquid
Liquid Gas
Smaller volume Larger Volume
Lower temperature Higher Temperature
As can be seen in the table, the more opportunities for

the particles to move more randomly, the more
disordered they will be, increasing entropy.
This is tied to statistics and the idea of multiplicity. The
more possible states for the particles, the greater the
amount of entropy.
Microstates
To better understand entropy, we need to consider the
idea of microstates. Let’s start by considering 2 states,
speed and direction.
Each of the possible speeds would be a microstate.
Likewise each of the possible directions would be a
microstate.
Since the particles here can only travel
in one direction with one speed, they
have few microstates and low entropy.
In this example, the particles have more
speed microstates and more directions
microstates, meaning that they also
have greater entropy. Credit Pearson Text p.228
Entropy calculations using microstates
We use the symbol to represent the number of
microstates of particles in a system. Since microstates
can be number of particles, directions, speeds and
positions, can be a very large number, so we use
instead.
To calculate the entropy of a system of particles:
𝑆 =𝑘 𝐵 𝑙𝑛 Ω Entropy of a system of particles
Where is the entropy value in J K-1 and is Stephan-
Boltzman’s constant.
EXAMPLE: What is the entropy of a system of gas
particles, which has microstates. Credit Pearson Text p.278
SOLUTION
Changes in Entropy
While the previous calculation works, it is often not
practical as measuring microstates is difficult.
However, using the properties of internal energy and
temperature, we can more easily measure changes in
entropy
∆𝑄 Changes in entropy using
∆ 𝑆=
𝑇 macroscopic quantities
Again has the units J K-1. Remember that temperature

is always in Kelvin.
Since we are often looking at the entropy change, this

formula proves to be very useful in looking at entropy
problems.
Consequences of the 2nd law of thermodynamics
1. Heat can not flow spontaneously from a cold
object to a hot one.
This would create greater order in the particles, but
that requires work to be done.
2.
It is possible to decrease entropy locally, but it must
always be accompanied by an increase elsewhere.
This is what happens when you make ice cubes in
the freezer.
3. A closed reversible process must have
These are idealized systems. Real isolated reversible
systems will always lose energy to the surroundings
and have
Resources
The books used in conjunction with these notes are:
Hodder DP Physics textbook, written by John Allum and

Paul Morris
Pearson Textbook, written by Chris Hamper and Emma
Mitchell

B.4 - Thermodynamics (HL) - Teacher

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

B.4 - Thermodynamics (HL) - Teacher

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Topic B: The Particulate Nature of Matter

B.4 – Thermodynamics (HL)

U is the sum of all KE and PE of atoms/molecules in the

If U > 0 then internal energy has increased

With 3-dimensional space, there are 3 degrees of

This gives us the expected result:

HEAT more random motion (<KE>) higher temperature

This is similar to saying work is not mechanical energy.

What would it mean if is negative?

There are 4 basic processes with n constant:

Isobaric = constant pressure

As the gas expands, the piston moves up

The work done by the gas on the

FYI - This relationship is known as Charles’ Law

For an ideal gas, internal energy equals the sum of

Isovolumetric = constant volume

When V = constant then NO work can be done (Why?)

If , there is an increase of internal energy of

FYI Isovolumetric is sometimes called isochoric.

If , temperature of the gas drops as work is done

Credit Pearson Text p.224

A→B – isovolumetric temperature increase

Credit Pearson Text p.225

Credit Pearson Text p.225

b) 500℃ and 100℃

The “equation of state” of a sphere

Sketching and interpreting state change graphs

FYI The purple line shows all three states changing.

Fixed mass and constant volume means n and V are

at absolute From :

From C→B, heat is absorbed by the hot object. That

The 2nd law of thermodynamics:

Can the room become ordered again?

Credit Hodder Text p.274

Can the particles become more ordered again?

As can be seen in the table, the more opportunities for

Again has the units J K-1. Remember that temperature

Since we are often looking at the entropy change, this

The books used in conjunction with these notes are:

Hodder DP Physics textbook, written by John Allum and

You might also like