INTRODUCTION TO

THERMODYNAMICS
FOR ENGINEERING MECHANICS
PART ONE ENGINEERING MECHANICS
(MECH 101)
By Eng. S. Chinguwa
Office number ED 23 IME
 Thermo Dynamics
• The word thermodynamics is made up from
two words:
• Thermo - from a Greek word meaning hot, or
heat, and,
• Dynamics - the study of matter in motion -
again from a Greek word meaning power, or
Powerful.
 Components thermodynamic studies
• Thus, the word thermodynamics means the
study of heat related to matter in motion.
Much of the study of engineering (or applied)
thermodynamics is concerned with work
producing or utilizing machines such as;
engines,
turbines and
compressors together with the
working substances used in such machines.
• All thermodynamic systems require some
working substance The working substances
are, in general, fluids which are capable of
deformation that they can readily be
expanded and compressed. The working
substance also takes part in energy transfer.
For example it can receive -or reject heat
energy or it can be the means by which work
is done. Common examples of working
substances used in thermodynamic systems
are air and steam.
 Laws of Thermodynamics
• W= Q
• where, W= Work transfer
• Q = Heat transfer
• If work is transferred during the cycle then, since there is no
final change in the properties of the working substance, the
energy to provide the work must have been transferred as heat
and must exactly equal the work. Now, during some processes
in a cycle, work will be done by the substance, while, during
others, work is done on the substance. Similarly, during some
processes heat is transferred out of the substance, while, during
others, it is transferred into the working substance. Thus, for a
cycle, since there is no net property change,
First law cont
 Conservation of energy
• An engine which could provide work transfer
without heat transfer would violate the first
law because it would create energy.
 Another statement of 1st law

• Q = Heat transfer
• (stored inside the substance)
 2 law of thermodynamics
nd

• Natural heat transfer down a

temperature gradient degrades energy to
a less valuable level. A limit of value
occurs when temperatures become equal
and are thus in thermal equilibrium. (it
directional flow). To violate 2nd law you
have to do external work.
 Some implications of the 2nd law of
thermodynamics
1. Heat transfer will only occur, and will always naturally occur, when a
temperature difference exists, and always naturally down the
temperature gradient.

2. If, due to temperature difference, there is heat transfer availability,

then work transfer is always possible. However, there is always
some heat transfer loss.

3. Temperature can be elevated but not without the expenditure of

external energy. Elevation of temperature cannot occur unaided.

4. There is no possibility of work transfer if only a single heat energy

source or reservoir at a fixed temperature is available
• By virtue of the second law of
thermodynamics it is essential
that all fuels should be used as
efficiently as possible in order
that fuel stocks may be preserved
for as long as possible.
 The 3rd law of thermodynamics
• This law is concerned with the level of
availability of energy.
• It is the concept that at the absolute zero of
temperature the entropy of a perfect crystal of
a substance is zero.
• Random translational, rotational and vibrational
types of motion of the atoms and molecules
making up the substance are reduced to zero,
then the substance is considered to become of
a perfect crystal form and the energies
associated with these forms of motion will be
reduced to zero. The substance is at ground
Rudolf Clausius ( 1822-1888) Statement
• It is impossible for a self-acting machine,
unaided by any external agency, to convey
heat from a body at a low temperature to one
at a higher temperature. Note that the
implication here is that, unless external energy
is inputted.
Max Planck (1858-1947) :
It is impossible to construct a system which will operate in
a cycle, extract heat from a reservoir, and do an
equivalent amount of work on the surroundings. This
statement implies the inability to completely convert
heat transfer into work transfer.

Kelvin-Planck:
It is impossible for a heat engine to produce net work in a
complete cycle if it exchanges heat only with bodies at a
single fixed temperature. This combination of individual
statements implies that it is not possible to produce work
transfer if a heat engine system is connected only to a
single heat energy source or reservoir which is at a single
fixed temperature.
Sadi Carnot (17 96-1832) :
Whenever a temperature difference exists,
motive power can be produced.
• Lord Kelvin (1824-1907):
• We cannot transfer heat into work merely by
cooling a body already below the temperature
of the coldest surrounding objects. This implies
that when a body reaches the temperature of
the coldest surrounding objects no further
heat-transfer is possible and hence no further
work transfer is possible.
 State point
• If two independent properties of a pure substance
are defined, then all other properties, or the state of
the substance, are also defined. If the state of the
substance is known then the phase or mixture of
phases of the substance are also known. E.g.
 Phases of matter
• When a substance is of the same nature
throughout its mass it is said to be in a phase.
Matter can exist in three phases, solid, liquid
and vapour or gas. If the matter exists in only
one of these forms then it is in a single phase.
If two phases exist together then the
substance is in the form of a two-phase
mixture.
 Process
• When the state of a substance is changed by
means of an operation or operations having been
carried out on the substance, then the substance
is said to have undergone a process. Typical
processes are the expansion and compression of
a gas or the conversion of water into steam. A
process can be analyzed by an investigation into
the changes which occur in the properties of a
substance, and the energy transfers which may
have taken place.
 Cycle
• If processes are carried out on a substance
such that, at the end, the substance is
returned to its original state, then the
substance is said to have been taken through a
cycle. This is commonly required in many.
engines. A sequence of events takes place
which must be repeated and repeated. In this
way the engine continues to operate. Each
repeated sequence of events is called a cycle.
Diesel cycle illustrated
The constant temperature process
• This is a process carried out such that the
temperature remains constant throughout the
process. It is often referred to as an isothermal
process. Particular cases of the constant
temperature process will be dealt with in the
text.
The constant volume & pressure processes

• The constant pressure process. This is a process

carried out such that the pressure remains
constant throughout the process. It is often
referred to as an isobaric or isopiestic process.

• The constant volume process. This is a process

carried out such that the volume remains
constant throughout the process. It is often
referred to as an isometric or isochoric process
 Energy and Work
• Energy is defined as that capacity a body or substance
possesses which can result in the performance of
work. Here, work is defined, as in mechanics, as the
result of moving a force through a distance.
• Work. If a system exists in which a force at the
boundary of the system is moved through a distance,
then work is done by or on the system. work is
therefore a transient quantity being descriptive of
that process by which a force is moved though a
distance.
 Work and Energy Cont

• Force on the piston remaining constant

• )

•
 Boyle's law
• During a change of state of any gas in which the mass and the
temperature remain constant, the volume varies inversely as
the pressure, or
• PV = C, a constant
• This is known as Boyle's Law, named after its discoverer,
Robert Boyle
Boyle’s law example
 Charles law and absolute temperature
• Consider now an experiment in which the
pressure of a fixed mass of gas is kept constant
while the volume and temperature are varied.
Charles’ law and absolute temp cont

Further experiments at different pressures, with

different masses and with different gases give a
similar result. An interesting point however is that if
all the straight lines obtained are produced back to
 Using the new origin
• The law of the graph becomes V = TC
• graph cuts the temperature axis at
approximately -273oC
•
• This is called absolute temperature scale. The
temp is absolute zero of temperature.

• This is Charles’ law by Jacques A. Charles

Charles’ law example
 Combining Boyle and Charles’ laws

• PV
• =C
Characteristic equation of ideal gas
 The specific heat capacities of a gas

• If a mass of gas m has its temperature

changed from T1 to T2 then the change of
internal energy can be determined by the
expressions. If the temperature change is the
same.
Polytropic process
Polytropic process
 Polytropic equations
Polytropic law

Characteristic equation
Polytropic example 1
Polytropic example 2
Polytropic example 3
Polytropic example 4
Tutorial
 Other processes
• Work and the hyperbolic process
(isothermal)
Isothermal process
Constant pressure process
Adiabatic process
Adiabatic process example