Characteristics of life

II. Characteristic 2
All organisms carry out metabolism. They harness and utilize
energy to maintain their highly _organized____________ state.

Life is highly organized – ______________________________

Maintaining a highly ordered state is costly  ------>

 II. A. Energy Foundations of Life
The main chemical processes of metabolism in all living matter are
very similar.
Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze reactions in all living cells.

Enzymes allow chemical reactions to take place rapidly and specificly ___
under mild______ conditions of temperature, relatively low concentratio
and relatively neutral__________ conditions (not too acidic or too basic)

Also, ATP is used as the major carrier of biologically utilizable energy

in all forms of living matter.

ATP – Adenosine triphosphate

 metabolism
Life conducts metabolism
Metabolism (GK: metabolē = “change”) - all chemical reactions
occurring within an organism. Note the central role
of ATP in metabolism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism

Anabolism____________: synthesis of complex molecules in living organis

simpler ones together with the storage of energy__________________.
- not spontaneous reactions
catabolism_________: the breakdown of complex molecules in living orga
form simpler ones, together with the release of energy________________
- spontaneous reactions
 II. B. Diversity of Feeding and Nutrition Types
Types of Nutrition
1) Autotrophs = synthesize their own food (“self-feeders”)
- use an external energy source to produce organic matter from
inorganic raw materials(H2O and CO2) .
Two types: 1)_photoautotrophs______________________:
- use light from sun (energy)
and inorganic materials
(H2O and CO2)
- plants, plant-like protists
Plants
(algae) and photosynthetic
Colorless Sulphur bacteria and archaeans
Bacteria 2) chemoautotrophs_: use inorganic compounds
(H gas; S, H2S, NH3, nitrites, Fe) as energy sources
- only certain _prokaryotes___________________ ca
https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Beggiatoa
- e.g. colorless sulfur bacteria
 i) Photoautotrophs: use _____ from sun (energy) and inorganic
materials (H2O and CO2)
photosynthesis

Light
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon dioxide Water Sugar Oxygen

________________
ii) Chemoautotrophs: use inorganic compounds (H gas; S, NH3,
nitrites, Fe) as energy sources
chemosynthesis

6CO2 + 12H2S C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 12S

Carbon dioxide Hydrogen sulphide Sugars Water Sulphur

6CO2 + 6H2O + 6H2S + 6O2 C6H12O6 + 6H2SO4

Carbon dioxide Water Hydrogen Oxygen Sugars Sulphuric
sulphide acid
 2) Heterotrophs = require preformed organic molecules
- use C chains in organic matter _btained ______________________
from other organisms to make _their own molecules__________

Two types:
1) _photohetrotroph________________: use light from sun t
ATP____, but need to take in organic compounds from
their environment as a carbon source_____________.
Example: bacteria – Chloroflexi
archaean - Halobacterium
https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Chloroflexus_aurantiacus Halobacterium
green non-sulfur most heterotrophs
bacteria
Chloroflexi 2) _chemohetrotroph______________________: must ob
compounds for all energy needs__as well as a
__carbon source_________________.
- animals, animal-like protists, fungi and many
bacteria and archaeans.
Prokaryotes - diversity of types of nutrition
autotrophs
photoautotrophs chemoautotrophs

Cyanobacteria (e.g. Anabaena) Colorless Sulphur

Bacteria

heterotrophs
photoheterotrophs chemoheterotrophs

Dead sea bacterium (Halobacterium) Yoghurt bacterium (Bifidobacterium)

25 representative organisms Heterotrophs
Autotrophs
prokaryotes

rest are
eukaryotes
3) Are animals all heterotrophs? Yes, except that!
Sea slugs are marine snails that lack a shell.

Elysia chlorotica
The sea slug Elysia chlorotica, along with a few other sea slugs, are
green because they contain chloroplasts stolen from algae they
feed on when they are young snails.
Snails eat algae once and become photosynthetic for the rest of
their life.
The sea slugs Elysia chlorotica take just the _chloroplast__ from the
algae they eat and deposits them within tubular diverticulae
of their gut.
 metabolism
This stealing of chloroplasts from algae is called Ideptoplasty______

Captive chloroplasts can remain active for up to nine months in

a snail.
The chloroplasts share enough photosynthate with the snails that
the snails no longer need to feed (autotrophic existence).
Snails are said to be “solar powered”.
The chloroplasts also serve to camouflage the snails.
The algal symbionts live in a protected environment within the
snail and obtain CO2, needed for photosynthesis, from the
snail’s metabolism.
Snails have been described as animal-plant_hybrids.
Each generation of snails must take up chloroplasts anew
from the algae.
 4) Are All Plants Photoautotrophs?
Some parasitic plants have no chlorophyll and live a
totally hetrotophic______________________ existence.

Indian
pipe

myco-heterotroph dodder –a plant parasite

a fungus parasite
3000 species of non-photosynthetic plants

Let’s look first at Indian Pipe, Monotropa uniflora.

_mycorhizzal fungi have a _mutualistic symbiotic relationship with
forest trees.
- fungus receives organic nutrients from the trees and the fungus
shares inorganic nutrients and water it has absorbed from
the soil with the trees.
- fungus provides trees with greater access to areas of the soil
not reached by the plant’s roots.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycorrhiza
 Indian pipes have a parasitic_____________ symbiotic relationship
fungus, getting all the organic molecules they need from the
mycorrhizal fungus.
Symbiosis – a close long-term interaction between two organisms
belonging to different species.

energy carbon
Sun Tree Atmosphere
carbon water &
energy inorganic nutrients
nutrients
water &
Mycorhizza nutrients
Soil
carbon
energy
water &
Indian Pipe nutrients

https://www.uoguelph.ca/~gbarron/MISCELLANEOUS/sept01.htm
 Dodders – Parasite of Other Plants
Dodder seedlings use airborne volatile______ organic compounds as
to locate their preferred host plant once the seed
has germinated.

The volatiles influence the dodder’s growth towards its preferred

host plant and it must find a host within 5 days or it will die.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tZpjKemWalk
Once it gets established on its host, the original root in
the soil dies.
Dodders have very little chlorophyll and use haustorial roots
to penetrate into the host’s vascular tissue, where they obtain
all their nutrition from their host.

They can grow, attaching to several plants at the same time.

 metabolism

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cuscuta_parasite_plant.JPG#/media/File:Cuscuta_parasite_plant.JPG
 Characteristics of life
III. Characteristic 3
III. A. Genetic Foundations of Life
Reproduction - (ability to make more of their own kind).
- perpetuation is the key for survival_____________________
- all of the chemical & physical qualities of life,
which characterize and define each life form Nesting Ospreys (3764510578).jpg

are replicated and preserved in a new

generation of cells & individuals.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Caprona_ransonnetii

Asexual reproduction
and/or
Sexual reproduction
dividing cell at metaphase
https://bio.libretexts.org/
Toowoomba Flower Gardens-2-26 (5032219773).jpg
Not all organisms can reproduce, but they are still considered
to be alive.
For example, a cross between a donkey and a horse results in a
__sterile mule____________, incapable of reproducing.
- yet a mule is a vigorous animal and you would not say its not ali
_____________.

mule

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mule
 Reproduction and Replication
Reproduction
= production of new individual organisms (“offspring”)
from living organisms (“parent” or “parents”)

original
strand
original
molecule
Pride (11955204).jpg

Replication new
= the duplication of genetic material strand

Dna-replication.jpg

Reproduction can be asexual or sexual.

III. B. Asexual Reproduction Diversity

1. Fission
2. Mitosis???
3. Budding

4. Fragmentation and Regeneration

5. Parthenogenesis
 Four Types of Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction: Mode of reproduction by which offspring
arise from a single parent and inherit the genes of that parent onl
_____________.
I. B. 1. Fission = binary fission Two Types

- simple fission - one individual separates into 2 individuals of

equal size. Binary fisiom
- multiple fission - one individual separates _into several_________
individuals of equal size.

Binary fission is a type of _asexual reproduction typically

observed in prokaryotes and a few single-celled eukaryotes.
The term is also used for asexual reproduction in some animals.
 4 types of asexual reproduction
III. B. 1. a. Simple Fission:
one individual separates into 2 individuals of equal size = binary fission
Mother cell
In prokaryotes the transverse growth of the
plasma membrane and cell wall separates the two
cells at the end of cell division.
DNA replication

A spindle apparatus is
not involved in separating
the chromosomes

Division of a prokaryotic
mother cell into two
New daughter cells________________. Two daughter cells
https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/mhccbiology112/chapter/binary-fission/ https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_fission
 Simple fission: in protists – single-celled eukaryotes
one individual separates into 2 individuals of equal size = binary fission
Protists – e.g.
Paramecium (RO) Euglena Micrasterias (RO)
mitosis

https://xup5matt.wordpress.com/tag/euglena/
http://nanelson.weebly.com/ch-20-protist-lab.html

transverse longitudinal https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/featuredmicroscopist/v

anegmond/micrasteriasthomasianasmall.html

division division
 Simple fission in an animal

Phylum Cnidarian – sea anemones

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sea_Anemone_(2863775991).jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:California_sea_anemone,_Anthopleura_elegantissima.jpg

Body splits down the middle_into two equal halves with each half
becoming a separate anemone____________________.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9LwmLQ5GUY
 types of asexual reproduction
III. B. 1. a. Multiple Fission
Some unicellular protists regularly divide by multiple fission to produce
Numerous new individual.
First, the nucleus in a cell undergoes several mitotic divisions____________
producing a number of nuclei within the cell.
- say the cell has become a multinucleate syncytium________________
After the nuclear divisions are complete, the cytoplasm separates,
and each nucleus becomes encased in its own plasma membrane to form
Several similier sized individuals____________________
_______________________________________.
The plasmodium/malaria____________________________, is a single-celled
inside human red blood cells (RBCs).
Plasmodium is transmitted from one human host to another through the
___________________________ of certain species.
Multiple fission
Plasmodium - causative agent of malaria

sporozoites in
mosquito saliva

infected
mosquito https://www.nih.gov/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito#/media/File:Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg

The mosquito serves as a vector______________ to get the parasite from on

human host to the other.
- vector is an insect or any living carrier that transmits infectious
agents from one host to another.

Malaria sporoziotes_____________ in mosquitoes’ saliva are the infectious

injected into the human blood vessels when a mosquito bites a
human.
Multiple fission
Plasmodium enters RBCs and feeds and grows inside the RBCs.
rbc
- this feeding stage of the life cycle
Plasmodium
is called the trophoziote_______________.
trophozoite

Once the trophozoite growth is complete inside the RBC, the

trophozoite undergoes multiple fission_____________________, by first produc
multinucleate plasmodium_____________________________.

One Plasmodium
trophozoite dividing
into many similar-sized
merozoits___________ by multiple
fission inside an RBC

Cells then form around the nuclei to produce a number of cells called
merozoites inside the RBC. Merozoites produced by multiple
fission are released into the blood to infect new RBCs.
Multiple fission
Within the human host, multiple fission is used to spread the infection
to spread infection RBCs.
Rapid increase in infected RBCs increases the chance that mosquitoes
will receive the infection of Plasmodium when biting a human.

infected RBC
https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2013/1001-bites-the-road-to-a-successful-malaria-vaccine/
 Not simple fission
III. B. 2. Mitotic Cell Division In Eukaryotic Cells
Process whereby eukaryotic___________ cells divide to produce two new d
cells genetically identical__________________________ with the original
Usually requires the formation of a spindle apparatus of microtubules_____
to move a complete set_______________ of chromosomes into each pole o
apparatus.

Once chromosome segregation is complete

Fig. 7.8 cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) occurs to produce two
daughter cells
 Not simple fission

Mitotic division is primarily used to increase cell numbers in

multicellular organisms, so this is not considered as fission.

While binary fission is for reproductive purposes, mitosis is

primarily used for growth in multicellular organisms.

However, some unicellular protist produce a new generation of

unicells by mitosis.
 types of asexual reproduction
III. B. 3. Budding:
New individual arises as a small outgrowth of another, (e.g., Hydra)
usually larger, parent organism_____________
The bud grows for a time on the parent
Hydra and then it is released to take up
an independent life.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hydra_oligactis.jpg

Hydra budding
__Hydra is an RO
_Unicellular yeast______________
_cell______________ Phylum cnidaria
budding
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast
 III. B. 4. Vegetative propagation in Plants

In plants roots, stems and leaves may be able to asexually

produce new plants that are clones of the parent plant_________________

Potato tubers develop from buds on sucker shoots. These tubers

can then be used to start a new generation of plants.
The Kalanchoe plant is famous for its ability to asexually
produce tiny _complete plantlets_______________ along its leafpotatoes
margins.

Kalanchoe leaf
Kalanchoe

The plantlets can drop off the leaf margin and start new plants.
 4 types of asexual reproduction
III. B. 5. Fragmentation & Regeneration:
- pieces break off the parent organism, each piece giving rise to a ____________
___new genectically identical individual________________________.

RO is a _star fish____________
Phylum echinodermata_____________
fragmentation
Pisaster & regeneration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linckia_guildingi

Phylum Cyanobacteria
fragmentation RO Anabaena (blue-green alga)
& regeneration filaments fragment by wave action

In Anabaena fragmentation produces sperate smaller filaments__________

Since Anabaena is a prokaryote, binary fission_____________ can then ad
to each fragment, increasing the length of each filament (regeneration).
Sea star regeneration is by mitosis__________________.
III. B. 6. Spore Formation

Reproduction by spore formation occurs in many fungi.

In the lab you will be studying spore formation in the fungus

Rhizopus.

The spores are produced asexually in sporangia.

The spores released from the sporangia will disperse through

the air and when they land on a new food source, they
will germinate to produce a new mycelium.
 types of asexual reproduction
III. B. 7. Parthenogenesis (animals):
- development of an individual from
an unfertilized egg______________________
(e.g., many insects; reptiles)
- growth and development of embryos
occurs without fertalization by a_____________________ by a
male. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_whiptail

[parthenogenic animals______________________]
Desert-grassland whiptail
lizards
In one type of parthenogenesis the eggs don’t undergo meiosis____________
but develop into females that are effectively a clone of the mother.
There are usually no males __________________ in populations with this ty
parthenogenesis.
- whiptail lizards

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_whiptail
 In another kind of parthenogenesis, seen in bees, only males are
parthenogenic.
- all the eggs produced by the queen bee undergo meiosis_____________
unfertalized_______________, the eggs develop into haploid males dron
If the eggs _are fertalized____________, they will develop into diploid femal
queens or workers.

major function
(mating)

Queen stores sperm

(several drones, < 2yrs)
Worker
--->1000’s eggs
diploid
Queen Drone
diploid haploid as sperm runs out
eggs ----> drones
 types of asexual reproduction

Parthenogenesis in plants____________ is referred to as apomixis________

= Apomixis (in plants): asexual reproduction without fertilization
Parthenogenesis occurs without meiosis through mitotic oogenesis.

Dandelion

• seeds production without pollination

• 50-170 seeds/head
single plant --> 2000 seeds
 Exchange of Genetic Material in Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes can exchange genetic material between individuals
of the same species____________ or between individuals of differen
Species in three ways.
Not generally considered to be true sexual reproduction.
- does not involve the equal genetic contribution from 2 gametes.
- does not produce new offspring___________________.

But it does introduce new genetic variation_____into prokaryotic ce

It results in horizontal gene transfet_______, the transfer of genetic

information from one member to another in the same generation.

Transfer can be conspecefic__________ (between same species) or

allospecefic__________
(between different species) in the same generation.
Three types of genetic exchange in Prokaryotes:
1. Conjugation:
Conjugation involves the direct joining________________ of two pro
different mating types (+ & -), which allowing the transfer of
new genetic material from one cell to another.
Some prokaryotes have one or more circular pieces of DNA called
_plasmids________________, in addition to their circular chromoso

Fig. 8.5
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmid

Plasmid composed of
a double-stranded
DNA molecule
Conjugation requires a direct physical interaction between two
cells via a sex pilus.

cytoplasmic bridge forms

The _sex pilus___________ on a donor prokaryote cell connects to an

recipient prokaryote cell.
_one strand of double standed plasmid____ is passed from the donor
cell to the recipient cell through the pilus.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation

A new complementary strand____ is synthesized for the single stran

plasmid DNA, in both the donor and recipient cells.
The recipient ends up with a new _double standed__ plasmid
genetically identical with that of the donor.
2. Transformation:
Some prokaryotes can be transformed by absorbing exogenous_____
DNA from their surroundings that was released from _________
__another prokaryotic cell________________.
Once the fragment of foreign DNA is
absorbed, it is _incorpoated_____________ into
the living prokaryote’s own DNA.
These transferred genes, once
incorporated into the DNA of the
new cell, can be expressed____________________
by the new cell.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)
3. Transduction:
Genetic exchange in which genes are transported from one
bacterial cell into another by bacterial viruses called
_bacteriophages_______________________.
When a phage DNA has been injected into a host cell, the infected
host cell’s main chromosome degrades______________ into small p

Fig. 8.7

New phage DNA is then _replicated_______

inside the bacterial cell.
When new phages are being assembled in the
infected cell, some of the host’s DNA may get
included inside the new phages.

When these new phages are released and infect

new bacterial cells, the foreign bacterial DNA__________________
enters the newly infected bacterial cell DNA.

The genes on the introduced DNA can now

_be expressed in the__ new host cell.
Genetic exchanges by conjugation, transformation,
N, and example of horizontal gene transfer

Fig. 8.7