Chemistry Revision

Year 10 mocks
C1.1 fundamental ideas
 Atoms, elements and compounds
• 100 different elements which all substances made from
• Each element made of one types of atom
• Atoms represented by chemical symbols, iron = Fe and oxygen = O
• Atoms = tiny nucleus surrounded by electrons
• When elements react, atoms join with atoms from other elements,
forming compounds (formed when 2 or more elements combine
together)
 Atomic structure
• Nucleus at the centre of atom contains two types of particle – protons and neutrons
• Protons = positive charge and neutron= no charge
• Electrons tiny negatively charge particles that move around nucleus
• Atom has no overall charge – no. of protons = no. of electrons and charges are equal
and opposite (proton +1 and electron -1)
• All atoms contain same no. of protons – atomic number (arranged by atomic number
in periodic table) – also no. of electrons in atom
• Mass number = total no. of particles in nucleus of atom – so no. of protons + no. of
neutrons
 Arrangement of electrons in atoms
• Each electron in atom is in an energy level – energy levels represented in shells (with
electrons in lowest energy level closest to the nucleus)
• First shell can hold 2 electrons, the second shell can hold 8 electrons
• Electrical structure of neon is 10 electrons, 2,8 and sodium has 11 electrons, 2,8,1
• Elements in the same group in periodic table have same number of electrons in outer
shell
• E.g. group 1 has 1 electron in outer shell, group 1 = lithium, sodium, and potassium
(examples)
atoms of unreactive noble gases (group 0) all have very stable arrangements of
electrons
 Forming bonds
• When different elements combine compounds form
• When metal react with non-metals – ions form
• Metal atoms lose 1 or more electrons to form positively charged ions
• Non-metal atoms gain 1 or more electrons forming negatively charged ions
• The oppositely charged ions attract each other strongly and the compound has ionic
bonds
• Chemical formula of ionic compound tells ratio of ions in compound
• When non-metal combine – atoms share electrons forming covalent bonds
• Chemical formula of molecules tells us no. of atoms that have bonded together in
molecule

Ionic bonding
Covalent bonding
 Chemical equations
• In chemical reactions atoms in reactants re-arrange themselves
to form new products – products
• Atoms neither created nor destroyed in chemical reaction –
number and type of atom remains same before and after
reaction
• Means mass of products = mass of reactants
• Also write chemical to represent reactions
• Word equations only give us name of R and P
• Symbol equations show number and types of atoms in R and P
• Symbol equations must be balanced
• Number of each type of atoms should be same on both sides of
symbol equation
C1.2 Rocks and building materials
 Limestone and its uses
• Quarry large amounts of limestone rock because has many uses
• Blocks of limestone used for building – limestone used to make
calcium oxide and cement
• Make concrete by mixing cement with sand, aggregate and water
• Limestone mainly calcium carbonate CaCO₃
• when heated strongly, calcium carbonate decomposes to make
calcium oxide and carbon dioxide – done on large scales in lime
kilns – reaction equation

This is thermal decomposition

 Reactions of carbonates
• All metal carbonates react in similar way when heated or
when reacted with acids
• Metal carbonates decompose metal oxide and carbon
dioxide when heated strongly enough
• Bunsen burner flame cannot get hot enough to decompose
sodium carbonate or potassium carbonate
• All carbonates react with acids to product a salt, water and
carbon dioxide – limestone damaged by acid rain because
calcium carbonate in limestone reacts with acid in rain
• Calcium hydroxide solution called limewater - used to test
for carbon dioxide – limewater turns cloudy because reacts
with carbon dioxide to produce insoluble calcium carbonate
 The ‘limestone reaction cycle’
• When heated strongly calcium
carbonate in limestone
decomposes to calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide
• When water added to calcium
oxide react and produce calcium
hydroxide
• Calcium hydroxide is alkali-used to
neutrailise acids
• Calcium hydroxide not very soluble
in water but dissolves slightly to
make limewater
• Calcium hydroxide reacts with
carbon dioxide to produce calcium
carbonate , the main compound
limestone
 Cement and concrete
• To make cement, limestone is mixed with clay
and heated strongly in kiln – product ground to
make fine powder
• Cement mixed with sand and water to make
mortar , used to hold bricks and blocks
together in buildings
• Concrete made by adding aggregate to
cement, sand and water – small stones or
crushed rocks used as aggregate – mixture
poured into moulds before set to form hard
solid
 Limestone issues
• Depend on limestone to provide building materials – cement and concrete
needed in most buildings
• Quarrying limestone have negative impact on environment and on people
living near quarries
• Cement works often close to limestone quarries – making cement involves
heating limestone with clay in large kilns – uses large area of land and lot of
energy
Advantage Disadvantage
More employment for local people Noise and dust

More customers and trade for local More traffic

businesses
Improved roads Loss of habitat
C1.3 Metals and their uses
 Extracting metals
• Rock that contains enough of a metal or metal compound to
make worth extracting metal = ore
• Mining ores involves digging up large amounts of rock – ore
may need to be concentrated before metal extraction –
processes produce waste and major problems on environment
• Few unreactive metals(low in reactivity series) like gold sound
native in the earth, separated from rocks by physical methods
– however most metals are found as compounds, have to be
extracted by chemical reactions
• Metals can be extracted from compounds by displacement
using more reactive element, metals less reactive than carbon
be extracted from oxides by heating with carbon – reduction
reaction – carbon removes oxygen from oxide to produce
metal
 Iron and steel
• Many ores used to produce iron contain iron oxide –
reduced at high temp. in blast furnace using carbon – iron
produced contain 98% iron, impurities make hard and
brittle so has only few uses as cast iron – removing all
carbon and impurities make pure iron but is too soft for
many issues
• Most iron used to make steel – steel = alloy of iron, mix of
iron with carbon and other elements – alloys can be made
so that they have properties for specific uses
• Amount of carbon and other elements carefully adjusted
when making steel – low carbon steels easily shaped and
high carbon steel = hard
• Some steels like stainless steel contain larger amounts of
other metals – resist corrosion
 Aluminium and Titanium
• Aluminium has low density – quite high in reactivity series – resistant to
corrosion
• Aluminium more reactive than carbon so its oxide cannot be reduced
using carbon
• Extracted by electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide – process requires
high temp. and lot of electricity – makes aluminium expensive to extract
• Pure aluminium not very strong but aluminium alloys = stronger and
harder – many uses
• Titanium resistant to corrosion and very strong – low density compared
with other strong metals
• Titanium oxide be reduced by carbon, but metal reacts with carbon
making it brittle
• Titanium extracted from ore by process involving several stages and large
amounts of energy – high costs of process makes titanium expensive
 Extracting copper
• Copper extracted from copper rich ores by smelting – heating ore strongly
in furnace
• Smelting produces impure copper – purification by electrolysis
• Smelting and purifying copper ore requires heating and electricity
• Copper-rich ores limited resource – scientists developed new ways of
extracting copper from low grade ores – methods have less environmental
impact than smelting
• Phytomining uses plants to absorb copper compounds from ground –
plants burned and produce ash – copper extracted from ash
• Bioleaching uses bacteria to produce solutions containing copper
compounds
• Solution of cooper compounds reacted with more reactive metal, e.g.
scrap iron, to displace copper
• Copper also extracted from solutions of copper compounds by electrolysis
 Useful metals
• Elements form central block of periodic table known as transition metals
• All metals with similar properties – good conductors of heat and electricity
• Many strong but can be bent or hammered into shape – useful materials for
buildings, vehicles, containers, pipes and wires
• Copper good conductor of hat and does react with water – bent but is hard to
keep in shape- properties useful for making pipes and tanks in water and
heating systems – good conductor of electricity as well and used for electrical
wire
• Most of metals bot used in pure elements
• Pure iron, copper, gold and aluminium soft and easily bent – often mixed with
other elements to make alloys that are harder so that they keep shape
• Iron made into steel
• Gold used for jewellery as alloy
• Most aluminium used for buildings and aircrafts is alloyed
• Copper alloys include bronze and brass
 Metallic issues
• Mining for metals involves digging up and processing large amounts
of rock – produce waste material and effect large areas of
environment
• Recycling materials saves energy needed to extract metal –
recycling saves resources, less ore needed to be mined – less fossil
fuels needed to provide energy to extract metal from ore
• Benefits of using metals in construction should be carefully
considered against drawbacks
Some benefits of using metals in Some costs of using metals in
construction construction
• Strong • Obtaining metals from ores causes
• Bent in shape – malleable pollution and uses up limited resources
• Made in flexible wires • Metals more expensive than other
• Good conductors of electricity materials like concrete
• Iron and steel can rust
C1.4 crude oil and fuels
 Fuels from crude oil
• Crude oil – different compounds at diff.
temp. – under diff. conditions so crude
oil needs be separated get useful fuels
• Separate mixture of liquid by distillation
– simple distillation of crude oil produce
liquids that boil within diff. temp. ranges
– liquids = fractions
• Most compounds in crude oil =
hydrocarbons – molecules contain only
hydrogen and carbon – many
hydrocarbons are alkanes (general
formula CnH2n+n) – alkanes contain
many hydrocarbons as possible in each
molecule – saturated fats
• Molecular formula shows number of
each type of atom in each molecules –
also represent molecule by displayed
formula that shows how atoms bonded
together
 Fractional distillation
• Crude oil separate into fractions at refiners using
fractional distillation – be done because boiling point of
hydrocarbons depends on size of molecules – larger
molecule higher the boiling point pf hydrocarbon
• Crude oil vaporised and fed into fractionising column –
tall tower that is hot at bottom and gets cooler up
column
• Inside column many trays with holes to allow gases
through – vapours move up columns getting cooler ad
they go – hydrocarbons condense into liquids when
reach lev; that is boiling point – different liquids collect
on trays at different levels and there are outlets to
collect fractions
• Hydrocarbons with smallest molecules have lowest
boiling points and so collected at top od column –
fractions collected at bottom of column contain
hydrocarbons with highest boiling points
• Fractions with low boiling point have low viscosity, are
runny liquids – very flammable ignite easily – also burn
with clean flames producing little smoke – very useful
as fuels
 Burning fuels
• When pure hydrocarbons burn completely are oxidised to
carbon dioxide and water – HOWEVER not always burn
completely – may contain other substances
• In limited air supply incomplete combustion can occur,
producing monoxide – carbons also produced and some of
hydrocarbons may not burn – produced solid particles
contain soot (carbon) and unburnt hydrocarbons called
particulates
• Most fossil fuels contain sulphur compounds – burn fuel
sulphur dioxide produce sulphur dioxide – causes acid rain
• At high temp. produced when fuels burn, oxygen and
nitrogen in air may combine to form nitrogen oxide also
cause acid rain
 Cleaner fuels
• Burn large amounts of fuel and release substances spread through
environment and affect environment
• Burning any fuel containing carbon produces carbon dioxide – CO2 =
greenhouse gas, cause of global warming - incomplete combustion of
fuel produces poisonous carbon monoxide – also producing solid
particulates reflect sunlight and cause global dimming
• Burning fuels also produces sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides –
gases dissolves in water droplet and react with oxygen in air to produce
acid rain
• Remove harmful substances from waste gases before release –
sulphur dioxide removed from waste gases from power stations –
exhaust systems fitted with catalytic converters to remove carbon
monoxide and nitrogen oxide – filter removes particulates
• Sulphur be removed from fossil fuels before supplies less sulphur
dioxide is produced when fuel burns
 Alterative fuels
• Biofuels made from plant or animal products and are renewable, biodiesel
be made from vegetable oils extracted from plants
• Advantages to using biodiesel – less contribution to carbon dioxide levels
– because CO2 given off when burns taken from atmosphere by plants as
they grew
• Disadvantages – plants that are grown for biodiesel use large amounts of
farmland
• Ethanol from sugar canes or sugar beet is biofuel – liquid and so can be
stored and distributed like other liquid field like other liquid fuels, be
mixed with petrol
• Using hydrogen as fuel has advantage, produces only water when burnt
• But gas takes up large volume – difficult to store in quantities needed for
combustion in engines
• Be produced from water by electrolysis but this requires large amounts of
energy
C1.5 products from oil
 Cracking hydrocarbons
• Large hydrocarbons molecules broken into smaller molecules by
process called cracking
• Cracking done in 2 ways
- Heating mix of hydrocarbon vapours and steam to high temp.
- Passing hydrocarbon vapour over hot catalyst
- During cracking thermal decomposition reactions producing mix of
smaller molecules – some smaller molecules = alkanes (saturated
hydrocarbons) – these alkanes with smaller molecules more useful fuels
• Some of other molecules formed are hydrocarbons with general formula
CnH2n – alkenes – alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons – contains
fewer hydrogen atoms than alkanes with smaller no. of carbon atoms
• Alkenes have double bond between 2 carbon atom and makes them
more reactive than alkanes – alkenes react with bromine water turinng it
from orange to colourless
 Making polymers from alkenes
• Plastics made very large molecules called polymers,
made from many small molecules joined together
called monomers – reaction = polymerisation
• Lots of ethene molecules join together to form
poly(ethene) – in polymerisation double bonds in
each ethene molecules becomes single bond and
thousands of ethene molecules join together in long
chains
• Other alkenes polymerise in similar way
• Many of plastics use bags, bottles, containers, toys
made from alkenes
 New and useful polymers
• Materials scientists can design new polymers to make materials with
special properties – used in packaging, clothing and medical
applications
• New polymer materials for dental fittings been developed to replace
fillings containing mercury – light sensitive polymers used in sticking
plasters to cover up wounds so plasters be removed easily – hydrogel
= polymers trap water and have many uses including wound dressing
• Shape memory polymers change back to original shape when temp.
or other conditions change – e.g. of smart polymer = materials used
for stitching wounds, changes shape when heated to body temp.
• Fibres used to make fabrics be coated with polymers to make
waterproof and breathable
• Plastic used to make drink bottles be recycled to make polyester fibres
for clothing as well as filling pillows and duvets
 Plastic waste
• Polymers not biodegradable - waste not broken down when left
to environment
• Suing more plastics are biodegradable – microorganisms break
down biodegradable plastics- break down when in contact with
soil
• Plastics made from non-biodegradable polymers corn starch
mixed with plastics – microorganisms break down corn starch so
plastic so plastic breaks down into very small pieces can mix
with soil and compost
• Biodegradable plastics made from plant material – e.g. polymer
made from corn starch used as biodegradable food packaging
• Some plastic be recycled but different types of plastic and
sorting is difficult
 Ethanol
• in alcoholic drinks

• production of ethanol by fermentation – definition

(fermentation) one kind of anaerobic respiration by
microorganisms – plants used are renewable raw
materials
• *ethanol is not produced it is mixed with water*

• making ethanol by hydration of ethene – definition

(hydration) a chemical reaction involving the addition of
water to a compound *in this case ethene* - hydration of
ethene forms ethanol
C1.6 plant oils
 Extracting vegetable oil
• Some seeds, fruit and nuts rich in vegetable oils –
extracted through crushing and pressing plant material,
removing water and other impurities – some oil extracted
by distilling plant mixed with water, producing mix of oil
and water from which oil can be separated
• When eaten, veg oils provide us with energy and nutrients
– also releases lot of energy when burnt in air and so
used as fuel – make biofuel like biodiesel
• Molecules in veg oils have hydrocarbon chains – carbon
double bonds (C=C), unsaturated, if several double bonds
in each molecule, polyunsaturated – unsaturated oils react
with bromine water, becoming colourless from orange
 Cooking with vegetable oils
• Boiling points of veg oils higher than water, so food
cooked at higher temp. in oi, cooks faster, also
changes flavour, colour and texture of food, some oil
absorbed and so energy content of food increases
• Unsaturated oil react with hydrogen, some or all of
carbon double binds become single, reaction =
hydrogenation – done at 60°C over nickel catalyst
• Hydrogenated oils higher melting points, more
saturated, reaction = hardening because hydrogenated
oils solids at room temp. – means used as spreads and
make pastries and cakes requiring solid fats
 Everyday emulsions
• Oil and water don’t mix, usually separate from each other, forming 2
layers - if shaken and stirred or beaten together tiny droplets from
that can be slow to separate = emulsion
• Emulsions = opaque and thicker than oil and alter made from –
improves texture, appearance and ability to coat and stick to solids
• Emulsifiers substances help to stop oil and water separating into
layers – most emulsions contain emulsifiers to keep emulsion stable
• Emulsifier molecules have small
hydrophilic part and long hydrophobic part
– hydrophilic part attracted to water (water
loving), hydrophobic attracted to oil
(water hating)
 Food issues
• Benefits and drawbacks t using vegetable oils in
food
• Veg oil = high in energy + contain nutrients -
contain saturated fast, better for health than
saturated
• Animal fats and hydrogenated veg oils contain
saturated fats used in food - saturated linked to
heart disease
• Emulsifiers stop oils abs water separating – makes
food smoother and creamier, however tastes better
and less obvious high in fat
 Structure of the Earth
• Earth = diameter, 12800 km – at surface o f Earth, thin
solid crust = very thin varies in thickness between about
5km and 70km
• Mantel under crust about 3000km, goes almost halfway
to centre of Earth – mantel solid but parts can flow slowly
• Core = ½ diameter of Earth, high proportion of magnetic
metal iron and nickel – liquid outer part and solid inner
part
• Atmosphere surrounds Earth, most air within 10km of
surface and most atmosphere within 100km of surface
• All raw materials depends on from crust, oceans and
atmosphere – means resources available limited
 The Restless Earth
• Earth’s upper and part of mantel and crust cracked into massive
pieces called tectonic plates – move few cm a year because of
convection currents in mantel beneath them – convection current
caused by energy released by radioactive decay from radioactive
elements heating up in the mantel
• Where plates meet, huge forces build up – rocks give way changing
shape or moving suddenly causing earthquakes, volcanoes or
mountains to form - scientists don’t know enough about what is
happening inside the earth to accurately predict earthquakes and
the eruption of volcanoes
• Alfred Wegener put forward ideas of continental drift in 1915 – not
accepted because couldn’t explain how continents move – believed
Earth was shrinking as it cooled – in 1960’s new evidence found
and theory of plate tectonics developed
 The Earth’s atmosphere in the past
• Think earth formed 4.5 million years ago – in
first billion year surface covered with
volcanoes releasing CO2 , water vapour,
nitrogen
• Next billion years, bacteria, algae and plants
evolved – algae and plants used CO2 for
photosynthesis and released with oxygen, no.
of plants increase amount of CO2 in
atmosphere decreased and amount of
oxygen increases
 Life on Earth
• Plants produced oxygen in atmosphere, evolved from simple
organisms – don’t know how molecules of simplest living things
formed – scientist suggested theories on how life began but no one
knows for sure – insufficient evidence
• Miller-Urey experiment
• 1952 – Miller and Urey did experiment based on what scientists at
time thought was early atmosphere – used mix of water, ammonia,
methane and hydrogen and high volt5age spark (lightning) – after
week found amino acids, building blocks for proteins been produced
• Other theories
• since 1950s theories about what was in early atmosphere changed
but scientists able to produce amino acids in mix combined to make
proteins from which life began – many other theories proposed but
no evidence proves any theory
 Gases in the atmosphere
• Plants took much of CO2 in earth’s early atmosphere – animal ate plants
and much of carbon ended up in animal/plant remains as sedimentary rocks
and fossil fuels
• Limestone formed from shells and skeletons of marine organisms – fossil
fuels contain carbon and hydrogen from plants and animals
• By 200 million years ago, properties of gases in atmosphere had stabilised
and were much same as today
• Atmosphere now 4/5 nitrogen and just over 1/5 oxygen – other gases, e.g.
carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases make up 1% of atmosphere
• Separating gases in air
• Gases in air have different boiling points and so separate from liquid are by
fractional distillation
• Fractional distillation of liquid air done industrially to produce pure O and
liquid nitrogen – important uses
• Nitrogen separated from O and argon and further distillation and further
distillation used to produce O and argon
 Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
• About 200 million years amount of CO2 in atmosphere remained
same
• Because various natural processes move CO2 into and out of
atmosphere achieved balance
• Processes involve carbon compounds in plants, animals, oceans
and rocks – organic carbon cycle shows some of processes
• Carbon dioxide dissolves in water, especially oceans, reactions of
inorganic
carbonate compounds are
also important in maintaining balance
• Recent past amount of CO2 human
activity released into atmosphere
increased dramatically – mainly
caused by large increase in amount
of fossil fuels being burnt