Optoelectronic devices, circuits, and

Systems

BITS Pilani SINDHU S

Pilani Campus WILP EEE/ Physics (Pilani)
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Elemental Semiconductors

MELZG512
Lecture 2
30/07/2022
Practice questions
1. Why does the Resistivity of Semiconductors go down with Temperature?
2. Some Important Properties of Semiconductors
3. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of conduction electrons is 7 × 10 19 m3. Find the total
number of current carriers in the same semiconductor of size 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 mm
4. The energy gap of silicon is 1.14 eV. What is the maximum wavelength at which silicon will begin
absorbing energy?
5. The energy of a photon of sodium light (λ = 589 nm) equals the bandgap of semiconducting
material. Find:The minimum energy E required to create a hole-electron pair. (5890 A 0),The value
of E/kT at a temperature of 300 K.
6. Pure Silicon semiconductor at 500K has equal electrons and holes (1.5 × 10 16 m-3). Doping by
Indium increases nh to 4.5 × 1022 m-3. Calculate the type and electron concentration of doped
semiconductor
7. Why the valence band in semiconductors is partially empty and the conduction band is partially
filled at room temperature?
8. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of conduction electrons is 7 × 10 19 m3. Find the total
number of current carriers in the same semiconductor of size 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 mm.
9. Why the valence band in semiconductors is partially empty and the conduction band is partially
filled at room temperature?

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 Practice questions

 Why does the Resistivity of Semiconductors go down with Temperature?

The difference in resistivity between conductors and semiconductors is due to their
difference in charge carrier density.
The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature because the number of charge
carriers increases Properties
Some Important rapidly with
of an increase in temperature,
Semiconductors are: making the fractional change
i.e. 1.Semiconductor
the temperature coefficient
acts like annegative.
insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the
temperature, it works as a conductor.
2.Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by
doping to make semiconductor devices suitable for energy conversion, switches,
and amplifiers.
3.Lesser power losses.
4.Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
5.Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
6.The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in
temperature and vice-versa.
Practice numericals

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of conduction electrons is 7 × 10 19 m3.

Find the total number of current carriers in the same semiconductor of size 1 cm ×
1 cm × 1 mm.
In an intrinsic semiconductor; ne = nh
Given, ne = 7 × 1019 per m3
Therefore, nh = ne = 7 × 1019 m3
So, the total current carrier density = n e + nh = 7×1019 + 7×1019 = 14×1019 per m3
The
Now,energy gapnumber
the total of silicon is 1.14 eV.
of current What
carrier is the maximum
= Number density ×wavelength
volume at
which
= (14 ×silicon will
1019 per m3begin absorbing
) × (10 -2
m × 10-2energy?
m × 10-3m) = 14×1012.
Since hc/λ = Energy (E)
Therefore, λ = hc/E
= [(6.628 × 10-34) × (3×108)]/1.14×1.6×10-19J
= 10.901 × 10-7 m = 10901 Å.
Pure Silicon semiconductor at 500K has equal electrons and holes (1.5 × 10 16 m-3).
Doping by Indium increases nh to 4.5 × 1022 m-3. Calculate the type and electron
concentration of doped semiconductor

Since, n2i = ne nh
(1.5 × 1016)2 = ne (4.5 × 1022)
Therefore, ne = 5 × 109
Given nh = 4.5×1023
⇒ nh >> ne
Therefore, the semiconductor is p-type and n e =
5 × 109 m-3.
Practice Problems

1. The energy of a photon of sodium light (λ = 589 nm) equals the bandgap of
semiconducting material. Find:
•The minimum energy E required to create a hole-electron pair. (5890
A0)
•The value of E/kT at a temperature of 300 K. (81)
2. A P-type semiconductor has an acceptor level 57 meV above the valence
band. What is the maximum wavelength of light required to create a hole?
(217100 A0)
Why the valence band in semiconductors is partially empty and the conduction band is partially
filled at room temperature?
In semiconductors, the conduction band is empty and the valence band is completely
filled at Zero Kelvin. No electron from the valence band can cross over to the conduction
band at this temperature. But at room temperature, some electrons in the valence band
jump over to the conduction band due to a small forbidden gap i.e. 1 eV.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of conduction electrons is 7 × 10 19 m3. Find the total
number of current carriers in the same semiconductor of size 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 mm.
In an intrinsic semiconductor; ne = nh
Given, ne = 7 × 1019 per m3
Therefore, nh = ne = 7 × 1019 m3
So, the total current carrier density = ne + nh = 7×1019 + 7×1019 = 14×1019 per m3
Now, the total number of current carrier = Number density × volume
= (14 × 1019 per m3 ) × (10-2m × 10-2m × 10-3m) = 14×1012.

The energy gap of silicon is 1.14 eV. What is the maximum wavelength at which silicon will
begin absorbing energy?
Why the valence band in semiconductors is partially empty and the conduction band is
partially filled at room temperature?
In semiconductors, the conduction band is empty and the valence band is completely filled
at Zero Kelvin. No electron from the valence band can cross over to the conduction band
at this temperature. But at room temperature, some electrons in the valence band jump
over to the conduction band due to a small forbidden gap i.e. 1 eV
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Elemental Semiconductors

 Elemental semiconductors are formed from a

single type of atom of column IV, typically Silicon.

 Germanium was used in many early devices.

 Silicon quickly replaced germanium due to its

higher bandgap energy, lower cost, and ability to
be easily oxidized to form silicon-dioxide
insulating layers

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• Semiconductors can be divided into elemental and compound semiconductors
• Elemental is particular element or material not a compound
• A particular element is not a semiconductor at all
• Si, Ge, Diamond which come from C, Alpha tin
Among this Silicon is most important because of its use in IC

Advantages of Si
• Relative ease of passivating the surface by oxidising in controlled manner

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• This stable native oxide layer, thus formed reduces the
surface recombination velocity

• Its hardness allows large wafers to be handled safely

• Thermally stable ,

• allows high temperature processing related to diffusion,

oxidation, annealing etc.

• Low cost

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Elemental semiconductors

The elemental semiconductors are those composed of single species of

atoms,
• silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and tin (Sn) in column IV
• selenium (Se) and tellurium (Te) in column VI of the periodic table

Properties of elemental semiconductors

• At absolute zero, semiconductors are perfect insulators,

• The density of electrons in conduction band at room temperature is not

as high as in metals, thus cannot conduct current as good as metal.

• The electrical conductivity of semiconductor is not as high as metal but

also not as poor as electrical insulator

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 Elemental Semiconductors belongs to the category of indirect bandgap materials.

 In the energy band structure of direct bandgap materials,

 the wave vector kc of the conduction band edge (the bottom of the
conduction band) and the wave vector kv of the valence band edge (the
top of the valence band) are the same,

 so the law of the conservation of wave vectors (momenta) for optical

transition is automatically satisfied.

 the wave vector of electrons is of the order of π/a, where a is the lattice
constant, and the wave vector of photons is 2π/λ, where λ is the
wavelength of the light wave, the photon wave vector is much smaller
than the electron wave vector for visible light or even higher optical
frequencies.

 So, an electron must make a transition between states having the same
wave vector. This means that only vertical transition is allowed.

 so both the optical absorption and the emission are a direct transition process..
 In direct bandgap materials,
 the wave vector kc of the conduction band edge and kv of the
valence band edge are not the same,

 so the law of the conservation of momenta for optical

transition is not satisfied.

 For this case, absorption or emission of phonons is required

to provide momenta to satisfy the momentum conservation
law
 . Such a transition involves either absorption or emission of
phonons in an indirect transition process
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Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

 EG 
n  BT exp  
2
i 
3
cm -6
The density of carriers in a semiconductor as a function of temperature and material properties is:
 kT 

EG = semiconductor bandgap energy in eV (electron volts)

k = Boltzmann’s constant, 8.62 x 10 -5 eV/K
T = absolute temperature, K
B = material-dependent parameter, 1.08 x 10 31 K-3 cm -6 for Si
Bandgap energy is the minimum energy needed to free an electron by breaking a covalent bond in the semiconductor crystal.

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Drift Current

• Charged particles move or drift under the influence of the applied field. The resulting current is called drift current.

• Electrical resistivity  and its reciprocal, conductivity , characterize current flow in a material when an electric
field is applied.

Drift current density is

j = Qv [(C/cm3)(cm/s) = A/cm2]

j = current density, (Coulomb charge moving through a unit area)

Q = charge density, (Charge in a unit volume)
v = velocity of charge in an electric field.

Note that “density” may mean area or volumetric density, depending on the context.

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Mobility

At low fields, carrier drift velocity v (cm/s) is proportional to electric field E (V/cm). The constant of proportionality is the mobility, :
vn = - nE and vp = pE , where
vn and vp - electron and hole velocity (cm/s),
n and p - electron and hole mobility (cm2/Vs)

n ≈ 1350 (cm2/Vs), p ≈ 500 (cm2/Vs),

Hole mobility is less than electron since hole current is the result of multiple covalent bond disruptions, while electrons can move freely about the crystal.

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Intrinsic Silicon Resistivity

 E V /cm 

      cm 
 jTdrift A /cm 2 

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In doped material, the electron and hole concentrations are no longer equal.
If n > p, the material is n-type.
If p > n, the material is p-type.
The carrier with the largest concentration is the majority carrier, the smaller is the minority carrier.
ND = donor impurity concentration
NA = acceptor impurity concentration atoms/cm3

Charge neutrality requires q(ND + p - NA - n) = 0:

positive charge: p (holes) + ND (ionized donors)
negative charge: n (electrons) + NA (ionized acceptors)

It can also be shown that pn = ni2, even for doped semiconductors in thermal equilibrium.
Explanation. The rate of e/h recombination is Cnp (kind of a number of possibilities of each electron to recombine with each hole). At the thermal equilibrium, rate of e/h recombination is equal to the rate of e/h pairs creation, thus np is the constant for certain temperature.
Since creation recombination is the thermal process (depends on temperature, not doping), np should be the same as for intrinsic material, so np = ni pi = ni2.
 For N-type material
Substituting p = ni2/n into q(ND + p - NA - n) = 0
yields n2 - (ND - NA)n - ni2 = 0.
Solving for n
(N D  N A )  (N D  N A ) 2  4n i2 n i2
n and p 
2 n
Substituting p = ni2/n into q(ND + p - NA - n) = 0 yields n2 - (ND - NA)n - ni2 = 0.

For (ND - NA) >> 2ni, n  (ND - NA) .


Similar to the approach used with n-type material we find the following equations

(N A  N D )  (N A  N D ) 2  4n i2 n i2
p and n 
2 p
We find the majority carrier concentration from charge neutrality and find
the minority carrier concentration from the thermal equilibrium relationship.
Practical Doping Levels

Example here
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Diffusion Current

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Diffusion Current (cont.)

If the electrons are injected and the

electron-concentration profile shown is
A bar of silicon (a) into which holes are injected,
established in a bar of silicon, electrons
thus creating the hole concentration profile along
diffuse in the x direction, giving rise to an
the x axis, shown in (b). The holes diffuse in the
electron-diffusion current in the negative -
positive direction of x and give rise to a hole-
x direction.
diffusion current in the same direction.

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Diffusion Current (cont.)
Carriers move toward regions of lower concentration, so diffusion current
densities are proportional to the negative of the carrier gradient.

 p  p
j diff
 ( q ) D p      qD p A/cm 2
 x  x
p

 n  n
jndiff  ( q ) Dn      qDn A/cm 2
 x  x
Diffusion current density equations Diffusion currents in the
presence of a
concentration gradient.

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Diffusion Current (cont.)

Dn kT D p
Dp and Dn are the hole and electron diffusivities with units cm2/s.

   VT  Thermal voltage
Diffusivity and mobility are related by Einsteins’s relationship:

n q p
Dn   n VT , D p   p VT
The thermal voltage, VT = kT/q, is approximately 25 mV at room temperature.



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Total Current in a
Semiconductor
n
j  q n nE  qDn
T
n
x
p
j p  q  p pE  qD p
T

x

 1 n
T
j  q  n n  E  VT 
n
 n  x  In the following sections, we will
use these equations, combined
 1  p with Gauss’ law, (E)=Q, to
j T
 q  p p  E  VT  calculate currents in a variety of
p
 p  x  semiconductor devices.

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Semiconductor Energy Band
Model

Semiconductor energy band model. EC and EV are energy levels at

the edge of the conduction and valence bands.

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Semiconductor Energy Band
Model

What happens as
temperature
increases?

Semiconductor Electron participating

energy band model. in a covalent bond is
EC and EV are energy in a lower energy
levels at the edge of state in the valence
the conduction and band. This diagram
valence bands. represents 0 K.

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Semiconductor Energy Band
Model

Semiconductor Electron participating Thermal energy

energy band model. in a covalent bond is breaks covalent
EC and EV are energy in a lower energy bonds and moves the
levels at the edge of state in the valence electrons up into the
the conduction and band. This diagram conduction band.
valence bands. represents 0 K.

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Energy Band Model for a Doped
Semiconductor

Semiconductor with donor or n-

type dopants. The donor atoms
have free electrons with energy
ED. Since ED is close to EC, (about
0.045 eV for phosphorous), it is
easy for electrons in an n-type
material to move up into the
conduction band.
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Energy Band Model for a Doped
Semiconductor
• Semiconductor with donor or n-type
dopants.
• The donor atoms have free electrons
with energy ED.
• Since ED is close to EC, (about 0.045
eV for phosphorous), it is easy for
electrons in an n-type material to move
up into the conduction band and create
negative charge carriers.
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• Semiconductor with acceptor or p-type
dopants.
• The acceptor atoms have unfilled
covalent bonds with energy state EA.
• Since EA is close to EV, (about 0.044 eV
for boron), it is easy for electrons in the
valence band to move up into the
acceptor sites and complete covalent
bond pairs, and create holes – positive
charge carriers.
Example: Calculate the resistivity of intrinsic siliconat
room temperature and classify it as an insulator

Solution:
Known Information and Given Data: The room temperature motilities. For intrinsic silicon, the electron and hole densities are both equal to ni.
Unknowns: Resistivity  and classification.
Assumptions: assume “room temperature” with ni = 1010/cm 3.

 = q(n n + p p)
Analysis: Charge density of electrons is Qn = -qni and for holes is Qp = +qni. Thus:

 = (1.60 x 10-10)[(1010)(1350) + (1010)(500)] (C)(cm -3)(cm 2/Vs)

= 2.96 x 10-6 (cm)-1 --->  = 1/ = 3.38 x 105 cm

Recalling the classification in the beginning, intrinsic silicon is near the low end of the insulator resistivity range

Conclusions: Resistivity has been found, and intrinsic silicon is a poor insulator.

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