Image coordinat system
z
g
y
k j
j
O x
i w
Y’
Resim orta noktası
Mıd point c
Principal point
Resim ana noktası
xo H
Resim (Kor.Sistemi)
yo Image coord.
x’
x’p M system
P’ y’p
Orta nokta bulucuları
Fiducal marks
Vertical photographs
1
Z’
x’p
P’
xo y’p
H’
yo
x’
z
f
c
y
g
j
k w
x
O i
Horizontal Photographs
2
To obtain the analytical equations the relation
between image and object space will be
computed.
Collinearity condition is the base of these
computations.
3
COLLINEARITY CONDITION
y
P’
x
Z
Y
Image Space
Relation between image and P
object spaces
Object Space
5
Collinearity condition :
•The image co-ordinates and the associated projection
centre of a photograph define a spatial bundle of rays.
They must lie on a straight line.
X0,Y0,Z0
P’
P
6
Collinearity is the condition, in which the projection center
of any photograph, an object point and its photo image all
lie on a straight line. The equation expressing this
condition are called collinearity condition equation. They
are the most usefull equations in photogrammetry. This
condition occurs if there is a central projection.
7
The collinearity condition
8
KOPLANARITE CONDITION
9
Deviations From Collinearity
Lens Distortions
1. Radial and Decentring Lens Distortion
2. Change in Radial Distortion with Lens Focus
(Nikkor 120mm lens and CRC-1 camera)
Image Plane Distortions
1. Affinity and Orthogonality
2. Image Plane Unflatness
Mathematical Relation Between Image and Object
coordinates using collinearity condition and geometrical
proportions
14
Mathematical relation ( X 0 , Y0, Z 0 )
Between image and O ( X ,Y , Z )
0 0 0
Ground coordinates
y
c
P ( x, y )
y0 x
Y’ x0
Z’
Z
Z 0 ( X , Y , Z )
P
( X ,Y , Z )
Y
Y0
X’
X 0
X 15
As a condition of the central projection the object point P, the
projection centre O and the image point P’ must lie on a
straight line at the moment of exposure.( Collinearity
Condition)
Mathematical relation
Between image and O
( X 0 , Y0, Z 0 )
( X 0 , Y0 , Z 0 ) We introduce now an
Ground coordinates
y
c X’,Y’,Z’ ground system,
paralel to the image
P( x, y )
y0
x
Z’ x0
Z
coordinate system x,y,z
( X , Y , Z )
Y’
Y
Z 0 P
( X ,Y , Z ) (z=0 for all image points
Y0
X’
z=c for the projection
X 0
X 16
centre) and rotated in
space relative to the
original XYZ ground
system
16
Mathematical relation ( X 0 , Y0, Z 0 )
Between image and O
( X 0 , Y0 , Z 0 )
Ground coordinates
y
c The collinearity
y0
P( x, y )
x condition of the
Z’ x0
straight line relation
Z
Y’ Z 0 P ( X , Y , Z )
( X ,Y , Z )
can be expressed in the
Y X’,Y’,Z’system by the
Y0
X 0
X’ two equations
X 16
x x0 X X 0
c Z 0 Z
y y 0 Y Y0
c Z 0 Z
17
DERIVATION OF THE SIMILARITY EQUATIONS
Projection on the xz plane
z
Z0 x
c
P’(x,-c) x X X0
x
Z0-Z c Z0 Z
Z P(X,Z)
X-X0
18
X0 X
Z z x0
Z0 O(X0,Z0) x
P’(x;-c)
x-x0
P(X,Z)
X 19
X0
DERIVATION OF THE SIMILARITY EQUATIONS
Projection on the yz plane
z
Z0 y
c
P’(y,-c) y Y Y0
y
Z0-Z c Z0 Z
Z P(Y,Z)
Y-Y 0
19
Y0 Y
20
We rewrite the equation with the measured image co-
ordinates as the unknowns.
X X 0
x x0 c (1)
Z Z 0
Y Y0
y y0 c (2)
Z Z 0
21
We replace the co-ordinates X , Y , Z of the
X 0 ,and
object point Y0, Z 0 of the projection center by
X,Y,Z and X0 , Y0 , Z0 of the ground coordinate
system. The X’,Y’,Z’ system is rotated relative to the
XYZ system and therefore we have to write as
follows:
X X 0 r11 r12 r13 X X 0
Y Y0 r21 r22 r23 Y Y0 (3)
Z Z0 r31 r32 r33 Z Z 0
22
The rotation matrice R is a orthogonal matrice,
therefore we can write RT =R-1 . We multiply the
equation (3) with RT from left and obtain the values
for
X X 0 r11 r21 r31 X X 0
Y Y r r r Y Y (4)
0 12 22 32 0
Z Z 0 r13 r23 r33 Z Z 0
RT = R-1
23
X X 0
We put the obtained values for
YY
0
Z Z 0
From (4) in the equations (1) and (2) and get the relation
between image and ground co-ordinates.
X X 0
x x0 c (1)
Z Z 0
Y Y0 (2)
y y0 c
Z Z 0
24
(5)
r11 ( X X 0 ) r21 (Y Y0 ) r31 ( Z Z 0 ) Zx
x x0 c x0 c
r13 ( X X 0 ) r23 (Y Y0 ) r33 ( Z Z 0 ) N
(6)
r12 ( X X 0 ) r22 (Y Y0 ) r32 ( Z Z 0 ) Zy
y y0 c y0 c
r13 ( X X 0 ) r23 (Y Y0 ) r33 ( Z Z 0 ) N
25
Since the X’,Y’,Z’ system is paralel to the image
coordinate system x,y,c the elements rik are :
•The cosines of the angles between the axes of the
image and ground coordinate systems
•Functions of the angles ,, by which the
photograph was rotated relative to the ground
coordinate system at the moment of exposure.
26
ELEMENTS OF THE ROTATION MATRICE
1.) First rotation : rotation around x''' –axis (x'',y'',z'')
x111 1 0 0 x11 x11
111 T
y 0 cos sin y11 D y11
z111 0 sin cos z11 z11
2.) Second rotation : rotation around y'' axis (x',y',z')
x11 cos 0 sin x1 x1
11 T
y 0 1 0 y1 D y1
z11 sin 0 cos z1 z1
3.) Third rotation: rotation around z' axis (x,y,z)
x1 cos sin 0 x x
1
y sin cos 0 y D y
T
z1 0 0 1 z z
4.) Total rotation: (x''',y''',z''') (x,y,z)
x 111 x 11 x1 x
111 T T T T T
y D y D D y D D D y
T 11 1
z 111 z 11 z1 z
T T T T
D D D D
T T T T
D D D D
1 0 0 cos 0 sin cos sin 0
D 0 cos sin 0 0 sin cos 0
T
1
0 sin cos sin 0 cos 0 0 1
cos 0 sin cos sin 0
sin sin cos sin cos sin cos 0
cos sin sin cos cos 0 0 1
cos cos cos sin sin
sin sin cos cos sin sin sin sin cos cos sin cos
cos sin cos sin sin cos sin sin sin cos cos cso
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
Elde edilir.
Some Definitions about Error Analyze
Observations are the directly observed (or measured) quantities which
contain random errors.
True Value is the theoretically correct or exact value of a quantity. It can never
be determined, because no matter how accurate, the observation will always
contain small random errors.
Accuracy is the degree of conformity to the true value.
Since true value of a continuous physical quantity can never be known,
accuracy is likewise never known. Therefore, it can only be estimated.
Sometimes, accuracy can be assessed by checking against an independent,
higher accuracy standard.
Precision is the degree of refinement of quantity.
The level of precision can be assessed by making repeated measurements
and checking the consistency of the values.
If the values are very close to each other, the measurements have high
precision and vice versa.
30
Appendix A & B
Error is the difference between any measured quantity and the true value for that
quantity.
Random errors (accidental and compensating)
Types of errors Systematic errors (cumulative; measured and modeled to compensate)
Mistakes or blunders (avoided as far as possible; detected and eliminated)
Most probable value is that value for a measured or indirectly determined
quantity which, based upon the observations, has the highest probability.
The MPV of a quantity directly and independently measured having observations of equal
weight is simply the mean.
x
MPV Where Σx is the sum of the individual measurements, and m is
the number of observations.
m
31
Appendix A & B
Residual is the difference between any measured quantity and the most probable
value for that quantity.
It is the value which is dealt with in adjustment computations, since errors are
indeterminate. The term error is frequently used when residual is in fact meant.
Degrees of freedom is the number of redundant observations (those in excess of
the number actually needed to calculate the unknowns).
Weight is the relative worth of an observation compared to nay other observation.
Measurements are weighted in adjustment computations according to their
precisions.
Logically, a precisely measured value should be weighted more in an adjustment
so that the correction it receives is smaller than that received by less precise
measurements.
If same equipment and procedures are used on a group of measurements, each
observation is given an equal weight.
32
Standard deviation (also called “root mean square error” or “68 percent error”) is a
quantity used to express the precision of a group of measurements.
For ‘m’ number of direct, equally weighted observations of a quantity, its standard
deviation is:
v2 Where Σv2 is the sum of squares of the residuals and r is
S the number of degrees of freedom (r=m-1)
r
According to the theory of probability, 68% of
the observations in a group should have
residuals smaller than the standard deviation.
The area between –S and +S in a Gaussian
distribution curve (also called Normal
distribution curve) of the residual, which is
same as the area between average-S and
average+S on the curve of measurements, is
68%.
Appendix B 33
Least Squares Adjustment
For a group of equally weighted observations, the fundamental condition which
is enforced in least square adjustment is that the sum of the squares of the
residuals is minimized.
Suppose a group of ‘m’ equally weighted measurements were taken with
residuals v1, v2, v3,…, vm then:
m
2 v 2 v 2 v 2 ... v 2 minimum
vi 1 2 3 m
i 1
Basic assumptions underlying least squares theory:
1. Number of observations is large
2. Frequency distribution of the errors is normal (gaussian)
06/21/24 Appendix B 34
Applying Least Squares
Steps:
1) Write observation equations (one for each measurement) relating
measured values to their residual errors and the unknown
parameters.
2) Obtain equation for each residual error from corresponding
observation.
3) Square and add residuals
4) To minimize Σv2 take partial derivatives wrt each unknown variable
and set them equal to zero
5) This gives a set of equations called normal equations which are
equal in number to the number of unknowns.
6) Solve normal equations to obtain the most probable values for the
unknowns.
06/21/24 Appendix B 35
Standard Deviation of residuals
The observation equation in matrix form: V AX L
Standard deviation of unit weight for an unweighted adjustment is: V TV
S0
r
Standard deviations of the adjusted quantities are: S xi S 0 QX i X i
where,
r is the number of degrees of freedom and equals the number of observation minus the
number of unknowns i.e. r = m – n
SXi is the standard deviation of the ith adjusted quantity, i.e., the quantity in the ith row of the
X matrix
S0 is the standard deviation of unit weight
QXiXi is the element in the ith row and the ith column of the matrix (ATA)-1 in the unweighted
case or the matrix (ATWA)-1
06/21/24 Appendix B 36
THE LEAST
SQUARES
SOLUTION
37
•For least squares solution we
need linearized observation
equations
•The equations (5) and (6) are
nonlinear and must be
linearized.
r11 ( X X 0 ) r21 (Y Y0 ) r31 ( Z Z 0 ) Z
x x0 c x0 c x (5)
r13 ( X X 0 ) r23 (Y Y0 ) r33 ( Z Z 0 ) N
r12 ( X X 0 ) r22 (Y Y0 ) r32 ( Z Z 0 ) Zy
y y0 c y0 c (6)
r13 ( X X 0 ) r23 (Y Y0 ) r33 ( Z Z 0 ) N
To linearize the equations we must
expand them into the Taylor series and
ignore the terms of degree 2 and higher.
The differential quotients used in the
Taylor series are as follows:
Non linear Equations
r11 ( X X 0 ) r21 (Y Y0 ) r31 ( Z Z 0 ) Z
x x0 c x0 c x
r13 ( X X 0 ) r23 (Y Y0 ) r33 ( Z Z 0 ) N
x=f(X0,Y0,Z0, ,,, X,Y,Z)
r12 ( X X 0 ) r22 (Y Y0 ) r32 ( Z Z 0 ) Zy
y y0 c y0 c
r13 ( X X 0 ) r23 (Y Y0 ) r33 ( Z Z 0 ) N
y=f(X0,Y0,Z0 ,,,,X,Y,Z)
The Differential Quotients
x c y c
2 (r13 Z x r11 N ) a 2 2 (r13 Z y r12 N ) b2
X 0 N X 0 N
......................... ........................
OBSERVATION EQUATIONS
The differential quotients are used to write the
linearized observation equations of a least squares
adjustment by indirect observations.
EACH MEASURED IMAGE POINT YIELDS
TWO OBSERVATION EQUATION.
i=index for the measured point, j=index for the photograph
Linearised Observation Equations
0 0 0
x x x
v xij dX 0 j dY0 j dZ 0 j
X Y Z
0j 0j 0j
0 0 0
x x x
d j d j d
j
j j j
0 0 0
x x x
dX i dYi dZ i ( xij xij0 )
X i Yi Z i
v yij similar
The unknowns are the six elements (X0,Y0,Z0 ,,, )of
outer orientation of the photograph with the index j and
the three ground co-ordinates (X,Y,Z) of a point Pi .
The differential quotients ( )0 are calculated from
approximate values of the unknowns., for example the
approximate values of the unknowns are put in the equation
0
below and the value of the differential.quotient x ,is
X
obtained. 0
0
x c
2 (r13 Z x r11 N ) a 2
X 0 N
0 0
x ij and y ij
Are computed values for the functions below
using approximate values of the unknowns.
r11 ( X X 0 ) r21 (Y Y0 ) r31 ( Z Z 0 ) Z
x x0 c x0 c x
r13 ( X X 0 ) r23 (Y Y0 ) r33 ( Z Z 0 ) N
r12 ( X X 0 ) r22 (Y Y0 ) r32 ( Z Z 0 ) Zy
y y0 c y0 c
r13 ( X X 0 ) r23 (Y Y0 ) r33 ( Z Z 0 ) N
Xij and yij are the measured image coordinates
THE APPROXIMATIONS TO THE
UNKNOWNS
There are various ways to derive approximations
Some of them are as follows:
For near vertical photographs
• 0 = 0 =0
• 0 is known from the flight plan
•The co-ordinates of the projection center and the
new points can be obtained by a block adjustment
with independent models.
EXAMPLE
1 2 1 2 Observed Image coordinates
3 4 3 4
5 6 5 6 2x6x4=48
Photo 1 Photo 2
Unknowns
3 4 3 4
5 6
3x4=12 Projection centre co-ordinates
5 6
7 8 7 8
3x4=12 Rotations
3x4=12 New point co-ordinates
Photo 3 Photo 4 Total 36
Redundancy: 48-36=12
Control Point
New point
OBSERVATION EQUATIONS FOR THE
EXAMPLE
NORMAL EQUATIONS
(in matrix notation)
v=Ax-l (observation Equa.)
ATAx=ATl
ATA=N and ATl=n
Nx=n (Normal equation)
STRUCTURE OF THE NORMAL
EQUATION
IN MATRIX NOTATION
N 11 N 12 x1 n1
T
N
12 N 22 x 2 n2
•N11 is a hyperdiagonal matrix
with submatrices each of 6x6
elements
•N22 is similary a hyperdiagonal
matrix with submatrices of 3x3
Vector of unknowns x is divided
into two subvectors x1 and x2
X 0
Y X
0
x2 Y
Z0
x1 Z
Subvector of the unknown
new point coordinates
Subvector of the unknown
outer orient. elements
SOLUTION OF THE NORMAL EQUATIONS
N 11 N 12 x1 n1
T (1)
N 12 N 22 x 2 n2
The system can be reduced by the new point co-ordinates x2
From the system (1) we can write
N 11 x1 N 12 x 2 n1 (2)
N x N 22 x 2 n2
T
12 1
(3)
Multıply (3) with N22-1 from left we obtain
N 221 .N 12T .x1 N 221 .N 22 .x 2 N 221 .n2 (4)
1 1
x 2 N .n2 N .N .x1
22 22
T
12
(5)
To eliminate x2 we replace it in Equ. (2) with (5)
N 11 x1 N 12 N 221 .n2 N 221 .N 12T .x1 n1
N 11 .x1 N 12 .N 221 .n2 N 12 .N 221 .N 12T .x1 n1
x1 N 11 N 12 .N 221 .N 12T n1 N 12 .N 221 .n2
(The reduced equation)
An adjustment yields corrections to the
approximate values of the elements of
outer orientation of each photograph and
to the approximate co-ordinates of the
new points. If the approximation are very
poor, the corrected values must be treated
as new approximations for a new
adjustment. This process is repeated until
there is no further significant change in
the unknowns of the block adjustment.
To obtain a band matrix the photograph must be
numbered vertical to the flight direction. With the
band matris structure we can avoid the multiplications
with zero element and spare time by computing.
