The French Revolution
The Age of Reason, characterized by intellectual
movements like the Enlightenment, introduced ideas such
as the social contract and emphasized individual rights.
This era paved the way for the Age of Revolution, notably
in France, where deep social inequalities had persisted for
centuries. The majority of French peasants endured severe
poverty, while nobles enjoyed immense wealth and
privilege. The clergy, closely tied to the monarchy, often
supported the status quo, reinforcing the divine right of
kings
By the late 18th century, discontent among the French
commoners reached a boiling point under the rule of King
Louis XVI, who was seen as ineffective and extravagant.
In 1789, the convening of the National Constituent
Assembly marked a significant turning point. This
assembly undertook reforms such as the reorganization of
France into departments and the nationalization of church
lands to finance social changes. However, tensions
escalated as clergy and nobles resisted reforms that
challenged their traditional privileges.
The storming of the Bastille in July 1789 symbolized
the start of the French Revolution, sparked by
popular resentment against royal authority and social
injustice. The revolution grew increasingly radical,
leading to the persecution and expulsion of clergy
who refused to support revolutionary reforms,
particularly those rejecting papal authority. The
period saw significant violence, including the
September Massacre of 1792, where thousands of
priests were killed.
The revolution culminated in the execution of
King Louis XVI in January 1793 and the onset
of the Reign of Terror, characterized by
widespread political repression and violence.
This tumultuous period marked a profound
transformation in French society and
government, driven by ideals of liberty, equality,
and fraternity that emerged from the
Enlightenment and fueled the subsequent
revolutionary fervor.
The Rain of Terror
The Reign of Terror was a period during the French
Revolution marked by extreme violence and repression,
orchestrated by radical revolutionaries to eliminate
opposition. The "Committee for Public Safety," led by
Jean-Paul Marat, George Danton, and Maximilian
Robespierre, executed nearly 30,000 people, including
many clergy members. This period saw the enthronement
of a dancer as the "Goddess of Reason" in Notre Dame
Cathedral, symbolizing the replacement of God with
reason.
In 1793, a new calendar was introduced,
removing Christian references, banning religious
books, and penalizing Christian practices.
Robespierre later proclaimed a new religion
focused on a Supreme Being and duty as a moral
principle. The leaders eventually turned on each
other, leading to further chaos and the
intervention of foreign armies.
Napoleon Bonaparte emerged from the turmoil,
restoring order and expanding France's territory
through military campaigns. He signed a
concordat with Pope Pius VII, recognizing the
French revolutionary government and allowing
government control over church appointments.
However, Napoleon's relationship with the
Church deteriorated, culminating in the pope's
imprisonmen t.
Napoleon's defeat in 1814 led to the restoration
of the monarchy and a limited power for the
king. Religious institutions began to recover,
with new orders like the Society of Mary and the
Marists emerging. Despite ongoing political
changes, the Church continued its work, though
its wealth and power were significantly reduced,
and France transitioned to a secular society.
ITALIAN REVOLUTION
For centuries, Italy was divided into small
duchies ruled by rival families, with the
Austrians and French repeatedly quashing
unification efforts. In 1820, Giuseppe
Mazzini led the Carbonari in a failed
attempt to unify Italy, though their
democratic ideals persisted and spurred
some reforms in the Papal States.
A movement for a constitutional monarchy,
led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, gained traction.
In 1848, Pope Pius IX fled Rome due to
the declaration of a republic. Various
regions granted constitutions, but Pius
called on foreign powers to suppress the
revolution, fearing anti-Church and anti-
religious sentiments.
By 1859, with British and French support, rebellions spread, and
Garibaldi captured Sicily and Naples. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel
II became king of Italy, leaving the pope with only Rome. The
Law of Guarantees forced the pope to relinquish the Papal States,
making him a "prisoner of the Vatican." No pope set foot on
Italian soil from 1870 to 1929.
The year 1870 marked the end of the Church of Rome's worldly
power. Despite Pius IX's continued influence, anti-papal
sentiments were strong. Ultimately, Italy achieved unification,
and nationalism triumphed.
More National Movements
During the 1820s, several national movements emerged, inspired
by the desire for freedom from monarchies and church influence.
In South America, Simón Bolívar led the overthrow of Spanish
rule in Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia, while Bernardo
O'Higgins and José de San Martín established a new Chilean
republic. These revolutions were paralleled by changes in Spain,
where monarchies were periodically replaced by anticlerical
republics, particularly during the periods of 1820-23 and 1868-
74. Napoleon's conquest of Spain and his imposition of a French-
style republic under his brother Joseph Bonaparte also sparked
significant reforms and backlash.
Republicanism in Spain was notably anti-
Church, as the Church was seen as wealthy
and powerful, often allied with the
monarchy, and implicated in the oppressive
Spanish Inquisition. As a result, republics
closed seminaries, confiscated church
property, and harassed religious institutions
to separate church and state.
Germany faced similar challenges. Prior to the mid-1800s, it was
divided into smaller states. Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of
Prussia, sought to unite Germany and establish it as a world
power. After persuading Austria to leave the German Federation
and defeating France in the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck
declared the German Empire in 1871 with King William of
Prussia as Kaiser.
To further unify Germany, predominantly Protestant, Bismarck
initiated the Kulturkampf, promoting German national pride and
viewing the Church as foreign. The May Laws of 1873 restricted
bishops' power, required ordination candidates to study at state
universities, expelled Jesuits, and placed education under state
control. These laws remained in effect for nearly fifteen years.
The Church in England and
Ireland
The Emancipation Act of 1829 allowed
Catholics in England to practice their religion
freely and gain civil rights. The Church quickly
became active, especially with the influx of Irish
immigrants. Despite occasional anti-Catholic
violence, such as in 1840 when funds were
approved for an Irish seminary, Catholicism
began to regain a foothold
The Oxford Movement, a group of Oxford students including John Henry Newman,
played a crucial role in this revival. Dissatisfied with the Church of England, they
were drawn to Catholicism's historical roots. Newman converted to Catholicism in
1845, becoming a cardinal in 1877 and significantly enhancing Catholicism's
respectability in England. Another Oxford Movement member, Henry Manning,
also converted and became cardinal archbishop of Westminster, known for his
activism and social welfare contributions.
In Ireland, the Catholic Church remained a stronghold against English efforts to
impose the Church of England. Irish Catholics faced oppression, including paying
taxes to support Anglican ministers. Despite this, the Church thrived, with
numerous bishops and priests serving the population. The Emancipation Act
reduced pressure on the Irish to convert, and by 1869, the Church of England was
no longer the official church in Ireland.
Vatican Council I
Pope Pius IX led the Church from 1846 to 1878, the longest
papacy in history. During his tenure, despite the loss of papal
lands, he strengthened the spiritual authority of the popes. In
1854, he issued Ineffabilis Deus, proclaiming the Immaculate
Conception of Mary. He encouraged countries to build
seminaries in Rome, enhancing the Vatican's influence and
recruiting capable young priests globally. Concerned about
philosophic and social movements threatening the Church, Pius
published a list of errors for Catholics to reject, including
rationalism, naturalism, socialism, and liberal capitalism. He
believed the state should protect and promote the Church, a view
that persisted until the Church later recognized religious
freedom.
To solidify the pope's spiritual authority, Pius
convened Vatican Council I (1869-1870). Over
500 bishops discussed issues since the Council
of Trent, with the main focus on papal
infallibility. In 1870, the council declared that
the pope is infallible when speaking ex cathedra
on matters of faith and morals, without needing
a council's approval.
New Mission in the Nineteenth
Century
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, missionary activity
slowed down due to various revolutions. However, during Pope Gregory
XVI's papacy (1831-46), new missions were launched by orders such as
the White Fathers, Congregation of the Holy Spirit, Society of the Divine
Word, Mill Hill Missionaries, and Congregation of the Immaculate Heart
of Mary.
The focus was on Asia and Africa. In Asia, countries like Hong
Kong, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Burma, Thailand, and India saw an
increase in Catholic converts. By 1890, China had 500,000
baptized Catholics and over 350 Chinese priests, despite Western
powers exploiting the country and the subsequent backlash
during the Boxer Rebellion and Communist Revolution.
In Africa, missions were particularly
successful in Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire,
Zambia, Kenya, and Malawi. By the turn
of the century, Uganda alone had 150,000
Catholics. The Church's reach extended
globally, encompassing diverse ethnicities,
including Oriental, African, South
American, and Caucasian Catholics.
The Industrial Revolution
The nineteenth century, often seen as the age of the
Industrial Revolution, brought dramatic changes to
society. Overseas trade flourished, machines increased
production, and people flocked to cities for industrial jobs,
leading to urban crowding and exploitation of workers in
factories. The Church responded by calling for social
reforms, establishing welfare societies, and opening
schools and hospitals for the working class. Leaders like
Cardinal Manning supported labor rights and the
formation of labor groups. In some countries, the Church
formed Christian democratic parties representing workers.
Karl Marx, reacting to industrial society's ills,
wrote Das Kapital and The Communist
Manifesto with Friedrich Engels, advocating for
a classless society and criticizing capitalism.
These ideas led to the formation of socialist
parties and had profound effects on society and
the Church, especially in the twentieth century.
Another significant development was Charles Darwin's
theory of evolution, published in The Origin of Species
(1859). This challenged traditional religious beliefs about
creation and led to widespread reevaluation of faith. Pope
Leo XIII, elected in 1878, addressed these challenges through
his papal letter Rerum Novarum (1891), which advocated
for social reform, trade unions, and fair wages, while
criticizing both socialism and capitalism. He also promoted
biblical scholarship and opened the Vatican archives to
scholars, laying the groundwork for future Church decisions
in Vatican Council II.
Selections from Rerum Novarum: On
the Rights of Laboring People
Selections from Rerum Novarum emphasize the rights and
dignity of laboring people. Pope Leo XIII asserts that employers
must respect their workers' dignity, treating them as human
beings, not as mere tools for profit. Labor is seen as honorable
and essential for sustaining life in an upright manner.
The document highlights the common reasons for strikes, such as
long hours, excessive work, and insufficient wages. It argues that
public measures should address these issues proactively to
prevent labor disputes, which can harm trade and public interests
and lead to violence and disorder.
Leo XIII emphasizes that laws should protect
human dignity and prevent treatment that
degrades or exploits workers. He also defends
the natural right of individuals to form
associations, stating that the state should protect,
not prohibit, these rights, as both society and the
state are founded on the natural human tendency
to live in community.
Focus on the Models
The Church's loss of worldly power during the 19th
century allowed it to refocus on its spiritual mission. Freed
from political concerns, the Church could align more with
common people rather than just the elite. This separation
from the state led to a greater emphasis on spiritual
matters.
Missionary activities expanded globally, supported by
Catholic schools and hospitals. New missionary orders,
including active women's orders like the Daughters of
Charity, visibly embodied the Church's role as a Servant.
These orders also established a strong tradition of Catholic
education.
In the face of various persecutions, Catholics
demonstrated their commitment to their faith,
often at great personal cost. Despite the
challenges posed by political upheavals and
philosophical and scientific advancements, the
Church emerged stronger and more faithful to
its mission as the People of God.
