Scott K. Powers • Edward T.
Howley
Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance
SEVENTH EDITION
Chapter
Work Tests to Evaluate
Performance
Presentation prepared by:
Brian B. Parr, Ph.D.
University of South Carolina Aiken
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Chapter 20
Objectives
1. Discuss the factors that determine the
effectiveness of a physiological test of athletic
performance.
2. Define “specificity of VO2 max.”
3. Explain the difference between VO2 max and VO2
peak.
4. Discuss the physiological rationale for the
assessment of the lactate threshold in the
endurance athlete.
5. Describe methods for the assessment of
anaerobic power.
6. Discuss the techniques used to evaluate
strength.
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Chapter 20
Outline
Laboratory Laboratory Tests to Determination of
Assessment of Predict Endurance Anaerobic Power
Physical Performance Performance Tests of Ultra Short-Term
Physiological Testing: Use of the Lactate Maximal Anaerobic
Theory and Ethics Threshold to Evaluate Power
What the Athlete Gains Performance
Tests of Short-Term
by Physiological Measurement of Critical Anaerobic Power
Testing Power
Evaluation of Muscular
What Physiological Tests to Determine
Strength
Testing Will Not Do Exercise Economy Criteria for Selection of a
Components of Estimating Success in Strength-Testing Method
Effective Physiological Distance Running Isometric Measurement of
Testing Using the Lactate Strength
Direct Testing of Threshold and Free-Weight
Measurement of
Maximal Aerobic Running Economy Strength
Power
Isokinetic Assessment of
Specificity of Testing Strength
Exercise Test Protocol Variable-Resistance
Determination of Peak Measurement of
VO2 in Paraplegic Strength
Athletes Copyright ©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 20
Key terms
• Critical power
• Dynamometer
• Isokinetic
• Margaria power test
• Muscular strength
• Power tests
• Quebec 10 second test
• Sargent’s jump and reach test
• Wingate test
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Chapter 20 Laboratory Assessment of Physical Performance
Physiological Testing: Theory and Ethics
• Physical performance is determined by:
– Capacity for maximal energy output
Aerobic and anaerobic
– Muscular strength
– Coordination/economy of movement
– Psychological factors
Motivation and tactics
• Laboratory test should stress the same
physiological systems required by sport or event
• Athletes should volunteer for testing
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Chapter 20 Laboratory Assessment of Physical Performance
Factors That Contribute to Physical
Performance
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Figure 20.1
Chapter 20 What the Athlete Gains From Physiological Testing
What the Athlete Gains From
Physiological Testing
• Information regarding strengths and weaknesses
– Can serve as baseline data to plan training
programs
• Feedback regarding effectiveness of training
program
• Education about the physiology of exercise
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Chapter 20 What Physiological Testing Will Not Do
What Physiological Testing Will Not Do
• Difficult to simulate sports in laboratory
– Physiological and psychological demands
• Difficult to predict performance from single battery
of tests
– Performance in the field is the ultimate test of
athletic success
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Chapter 20 Components of Effective Physiological Testing
Components of Effective Physiological
Testing
• Physiological variables tested should be relevant to
the sport
• Tests should be valid and reliable
• Tests should be sport-specific
• Tests should be repeated at regular intervals
• Testing procedures should be carefully controlled
• Test results should be interpreted to the coach and
athlete
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Chapter 20 Components of Effective Physiological Testing
In Summary
Designing laboratory tests to assess physical
performance requires an understanding of those factors
that contribute to success in a particular sport.
Physical performance is determined by the interaction of
the following factors: (a) maximal energy output, (b)
muscular strength, (c) coordination/economy of
movement, and (d) psychological factors such as
motivation and tactics.
In order to be effective, physiological tests should be: (a)
relevant to the sport; (b) valid and reliable; (c) sport
specific; (d) repeated at regular intervals; (e)
standardized, and (f) interpreted to the coach and
athlete.
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Chapter 20
Test Example
• What factors that contribute to energy of athletic
performance
• Components of effective physiological testing,
Except
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Chapter 20 Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
• VO2 max is considered the best test for predicting
success in endurance events
– Other factors are also important
– Better predictor in heterogeneous groups
• Most accurate means of measurement is direct
testing in laboratory
– Open-circuit spirometry
• Specificity of testing
– Should be specific to athlete’s sport
Runners tested on treadmill
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Chapter 20 Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
Exercise Test Protocol
• Should use large muscle groups
• Optimal test length 10–12 minutes
– Start with 3–5 minute warm-up
– Increase work rate to near maximal load
– Increase load stepwise every 1–4 minutes until
subject cannot maintain desired work rate
– Criteria for VO2 max
Plateau in VO2 with increasing work rate
– Rarely observed in incremental tests
Blood lactate concentration of >8 mmoles•L–1
Respiratory exchange ratio 1.15
HR in last stage 10 beats•min–1 of HRmax
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Chapter 20 Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
Determining VO2 Max
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Figure 20.1
Chapter 20 Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
Determination of Peak VO2 in Paraplegic
Athletes
• Paraplegic athletes can be tested using arm
exercise
– Arm ergometers
– Wheelchair ergometers
• Highest VO2 measured during arm exercise is not
considered VO2 max
– Called “peak VO2”
• Higher peak VO2 using accelerated protocol
– Test starts at 50–60% of peak VO2
– Limits muscular fatigue early in test
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Chapter 20 Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
In Summary
The measurement of VO2 max requires the use of large
muscle groups and should be specific to the movement
required by the athlete in his or her event or sport.
A VO2 max test can be judged to be valid if two of the
following criteria are met: (a) respiratory exchange ratio
>1.15, (b) HR during the last test stage that is ±10 beats
per minute within the predicted HRmax, and/or (c)
plateau in VO2 with an increase in work rate.
Arm crank ergometry and wheelchair ergometry have
been used to determine the peak VO2 in paraplegic
athletes.
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Chapter 20
Test Example
• What is considered the best test for predicting
success in endurance events
• What is criteria for VO2 max
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Chapter 20 Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance
Performance
• Peak running velocity
– Highest speed that can be maintained for >5 sec
• Lactate threshold
– Exercise intensity at which blood lactic acid begins
to systematically increase
– Direct measurement
– Estimation by ventilatory threshold
• Critical power
– Speed at which running speed/time curve reaches
plateau
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Chapter 20 Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Research Focus 20.1
Measurement of Peak Running Velocity
to Predict Performance
• Peak running velocity
– Tested on treadmill or on track
Progressively increasing speed on treadmill
– Highest speed that can be maintained for >5 sec
• Excellent predictor of 5 km run performance
– Strong correlation
r = –0.97
– Also a good predictor of 10–90 km race performance
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Chapter 20 Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Relationship Between Peak Running
Velocity and 5-km Race Performance
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Figure 20.3
Chapter 20 Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Use of the Lactate Threshold to Evaluate
Performance
• Lactate threshold estimates maximal steady-state
running speed
– Predictor of success in distance running events
• Direct determination of lactate threshold (LT)
– 2–5 minute warm-up
– Stepwise increases in work rate every 1–3 minutes
– Measure blood lactate at each work rate
– LT is the breakpoint in the lactate/VO2 graph
• Prediction of the LT by ventilatory alterations
– Ventilatory threshold (Tvent)
Point at which there is a sudden increase in ventilation
Used as an estimate of LT
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Chapter 20 Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Lactate Threshold
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Figure 20.4
Chapter 20
Lactate threshold
Lactate threshold is commonly known as the exercise intensity or blood
lactate concentration at the one we can only sustain a high intensity
effort for a specific period of time
(LT) training is a popular method of improving high-intensity endurance performance.
While V02 Max may indicate an athlete's genetic potential and natural ability, their lactate
threshold can be increased substantially with the right training program
Lactate threshold is one of the most commonly, and effectively, used performance
markers used by many athletes and coaches. The point is to learn the highest intensity at
which you race and train before hitting the wall from high levels of blood lactate.
The Anaerobic Threshold (AT) is the physiological point during exercise at which lactic
acid starts to accumulate in the muscles, which occurs around the point during increasing
intensity exercise that anaerobic processes become more dominant. For this reason it is
also sometimes called the Lactate Threshold (LT).
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Chapter 20
Ventilatory Threshold
In kinesiology, the ventilatory threshold (VT1) refers to the point during exercise at
which ventilation starts to increase at a faster rate than VO2 (V – volume, O2 –
oxygen). One'sthreshold is said to reflect levels of anaerobiosis and lactate
accumulation.
A deconditioned person has a lower VO2 max than someone who is
conditioned. As an exerciser becomes more conditioned, his or her
VO2max will increase.
1.Rest
2.VT1 (breathing begins to increase)
3.VT2 (out of breath, high intensity)
4.VO2 max (exercise needs to conclude due to exhaustion)
A sedentary person will reach VT1, VT2, and VO2 max at a much lower intensities of
exercise than a more physically active person. For example, an extremely deconditioned
person may reach his or her VT1 while just walking. Conversely, a more conditioned person
will reach these markers at a higher intensity. For example, he or she may reach VT1 at a
running speed
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Chapter 20
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Chapter 20 Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Ventilatory Threshold
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Figure 20.5
Chapter 20 Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Measurement of Critical Power
• Critical power
– Running speed at which running speed/time curve
reaches a plateau
– Power output that can be maintained indefinitely
However, most athletes fatigue in 30–60 min when
exercising at critical power
• Measurement of critical power
– Subjects perform series of timed exercise trials to
exhaustion
• Prediction of performance in events lasting 3–100
minutes
– Highly correlated with high VO2 max and LT
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Chapter 20
Critical Power:
An Important Fatigue Threshold in Exercise Physiology. CP may
be regarded as a "fatigue threshold" in the sense that it separates
exercise intensity domains within which the physiological
responses to exercise can (<CP) or cannot (>CP) be stabilized.
CP is a mathematical concept that describes the limits of human
performance. This concept constitutes of 2 parts, the critical power
and W'. The critical power is the asymptote of the power output
that can be sustained indefinitely.
Functional Threshold Power(FTP), a measurement popularized by
Dr. Andrew Coggan, is the maximum sustainable power output
you can hold for one hour
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Chapter 20 Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Concept of Critical Power
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Figure 20.6
Chapter 20 Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
In Summary
Common laboratory tests to predict endurance
performance include measurement of the lactate
threshold, critical power, and peak running velocity. All of
these measurements have been proven useful in
predicting performance in endurance events.
The lactate threshold can be determined during an
incremental exercise test using any one of several
exercise modalities (e.g., treadmill, cycle ergometer,
etc.). The lactate threshold represents an exercise
intensity at which blood lactic acid levels begin to
systematically increase.
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Chapter 20 Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
In Summary
Critical power is defined as the running speed (i.e.,
power output) at which the running speed/time curve
reaches a plateau.
Peak running velocity (meters•second–1) can be
determined on a treadmill or track and is defined as the
highest speed that can be maintained for more than five
seconds.
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Chapter 20
Test Example
• Critical power is
• Direct determination of lactate threshold (LT)
• Why test lactate threshold
• Peak running velocity is defined as the highest
running speed that can be maintained for _____
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Chapter 20 Tests to Determine Exercise Economy
Tests to Determine Exercise Economy
• Higher economy means that less energy is
expended to maintain a given speed
– Runner with higher running economy should defeat
a less economical runner in a race
• Measurement of the oxygen cost of running at
various speeds
– Plot oxygen requirement as a function of running
speed
– Greater running economy reflected in lower oxygen
cost
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Chapter 20 Tests to Determine Exercise Economy
The Oxygen Cost of Running for Two
Subjects
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Figure 20.7
Chapter 20 Estimating Distance Running Success
Estimating Distance Running Success
Using LT and Running Economy
• Close relationship between LT and maximal pace in
10,000 m race
– Race pace at 5 m•min–1 above LT
• Predicting performance in a 10,000-m race
– Measure VO2 max
Plot VO2 vs. running speed
– Determine lactate threshold
Plot blood lactate vs. VO2
– VO2 at LT = 40 ml•kg–1•min–1
VO2 of 40 ml•kg–1•min–1 = running speed of 200 m•min–1
– Estimated 10,000 m running time
10,000m 205 m•min–1 = 48.78 min
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Chapter 20 Estimating Distance Running Success
Running Economy and LT Results from
Incremental Exercise Test
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Figure 20.8
Chapter 20 Estimating Distance Running Success
In Summary
Success in an endurance event can be predicted by a
laboratory assessment of the athlete’s movement
economy, VO2 max, and lactate threshold. These
parameters can be used to determine the maximal race
pace that an athlete can maintain for a given racing
distance.
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Chapter 20
Test Example
• Predicting performance in a 10,000-m race
• Higher economy runner means
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Chapter 20 Determination of Anaerobic Power
Determination of Maximal Anaerobic
Power
• Testing should involve energy pathways used in
the event
• Ultra short-term tests
– ATP-PC system
• Short-term tests
– Anaerobic glycolysis
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Chapter 20 Determination of Anaerobic Power
Energy System Contribution During
Maximal Exercise
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Figure 20.9
Chapter 20 Determination of Anaerobic Power
Tests of Ultra Short-Term
Anaerobic Power
• Tests ATP-PC system
• Power tests
– Jumping power tests
– Running power tests
American football
– Series of 40-yard dashes with brief recovery between
Soccer
– Intermittent shuttle tests
– Cycling power tests
Quebec 10-second test
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Chapter 20 Determination of Anaerobic Power
Series of 40-yard Dashes to Test
Anaerobic Power
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Figure 20.10
Chapter 20 Determination of Anaerobic Power
Classification of Football Players Based
on 40-Yard Dash Times
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Chapter 20
Margaria-Kalamen Test
• Usually under 3 seconds so is a test of
thephosphagen system
• Power (kgm/sec)= Work ÷ Time = Force xDistance ÷
Time
• Force = BW (kg)
• Distance = sum of step ht (meters)
• Time = amount of time to climb stairs (sec)
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Chapter 20
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Chapter 20
Margaria Power Test
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Chapter 20 Determination of Anaerobic Power
Tests of Short-Term Anaerobic Power
• Tests anaerobic glycolysis
• Cycling tests
– Wingate test
Subject pedals as rapidly as possible for 30 seconds
against predetermined load (based on body weight)
Peak power indicative of ATP-PC system
Percentage of peak power decline is an index of ATP-PC
system and glycolysis
• Running tests
– Maximal runs of 200–800 m
• Sport-specific tests
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Chapter 20 Determination of Anaerobic Power
Resistance Setting for Wingate Test
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Chapter 20
Power Output Decrement
• Highest power output is measured usually in the
first 5 second of test
• Lowest power output is measured usually in the
last 5 second of test
• Hi power output – lo power output / hi power output
* 100
• e.g.
– Hi power output=600
– Lo power output = 200
(600-200)/600=67%
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Chapter 20 Determination of Anaerobic Power
In Summary
Anaerobic power tests are classified as: (a) ultra short-
term tests to determine the maximal capacity of the ATP-
PC system and (b) short-term tests to evaluate the
maximal capacity for anaerobic glycolysis.
Ultra short-tem and short-term power tests should be
sport-specific in an effort to provide the athlete and
coach with feedback about the athlete’s current fitness
level.
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Chapter 20
Test Example
• The vertical jump test uses the ATP-PC system, so
it is considered a good predictor of
• What is a good test of glycolytic power?
• Calculate an athlete’s anaerobic power
– Body weight= 75 kg
– Sum of stair height= 2 m
– Running time= 0.66 sec
• When Hi power output=500 and Lo power output =
250, the power output decrement is
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Chapter 20 Evaluation of Muscular Strength
Muscular Strength
• Maximal force that can be generated by a muscle or
muscle group
• Assessed by:
– Isometric measurement
Static force of muscle using tensiometer
– Free weight testing
Weight (dumbbell or barbell) remains constant
1 RM lift, handgrip dynamometer
– Isokinetic measurement
Variable resistance at constant speed
– Variable resistance devices
Variable resistance over range of motion
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Chapter 20 Evaluation of Muscular Strength
Measurement of Maximal Isometric
Force During Knee Extension
Figure 20.11
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Chapter 20 Evaluation of Muscular Strength
Handgrip Dynamometer to Assess Grip
Strength
Figure 20.12
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Chapter 20 Evaluation of Muscular Strength
Isokinetic Assessment of Knee
Extension
Figure 20.13
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Chapter 20 Evaluation of Muscular Strength
Printout From Isokinetic Dynamometer
During a Knee Extension
Figure 20.14
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Chapter 20 Evaluation of Muscular Strength
In Summary
Muscular strength is defined as the maximum force that
can be generated by a muscle group.
Evaluation of muscular strength is useful in assessing
training programs for athletes involved in power sports or
events.
Muscular strength can be evaluated using any one of the
following techniques: (a) isometric, (b) free-weight
testing, (c) isokinetic, or (d) variable-resistance devices.
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Chapter 20
Test Example
• Performance of a one-repetition maximum test to
determine muscular strength is an example of
• Maximal force that can be assessed by
• A handgrip dynamometer is an easy method of
assessing
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Chapter 20
Study Questions
1. Discuss the rationale behind laboratory tests designed to
assess physical performance in athletes. How do these tests
differ from general physical fitness tests?
2. Define maximal oxygen uptake. Why might relative VO2 max
be the single most important factor in predicting distance
running success in a heterogeneous group of runners?
3. Discuss the concept of “specificity of testing” for the
determination of VO2 max. Give a brief overview of the design
of an incremental test to determine VO2 max. What criteria
can be used to determine the validity of a VO2 max test?
4. Briefly, explain the technique employed to determine the
lactate threshold and the ventilatory threshold.
5. Describe how the economy of running might be evaluated in
the laboratory.
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Chapter 20
Study Questions
6. Discuss the theory and procedures involved in predicting
success in distance running.
7. Explain how short-term maximal anaerobic power can be
evaluated by field tests.
8. Describe how the Wingate test is used to assess medium-
term anaerobic power.
9. Provide an overview of the 1-RM technique to evaluate
muscular strength. Why might a computer-assisted
dynamometer be superior to the 1-RM technique in
assessing strength changes?
10. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of the
following types of strength measurement: (1) isometric, (2)
free weights, (3) isokinetic, and (4) variable resistance.
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