Chapter 4

Elements of Realizability Theory

4.1. Causality and Stability

4.2. Hurwitz Polynomials

4.3. Positive Real Functions

4.4. Testing Positive Real Functions

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 In4.the last chapter we were concerned with
Elements of realizability theory

the problem of identifying the response

given the excitation and network.
When we discuss about synthesis we are
concerned with the problem of constructing
a network given the excitation and
response.
R( s)
H ( s ) 
The starting point for any synthesis is the
E (s)
system function

 Our task is to synthesize the network from a

given system function
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 4.1 Causality and Stability
 The first step in synthesis procedure is to determine whether
H(s) can be realized as a physical passive network.
 There are two important considerations :causality and stability

I. Causality

 A voltage can’t appear between any pair of two terminals in

the network before a current is imposed or vice-versa.
 In other words, the impulse response of the network must be
zero for t< 0, that is:

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Example: the impulse response is causal, where as
is not causal.
In certain cases the impulse response could be made realizable(causal)
by delaying it appropriately as shown below.

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 II. Stability
In order for a network to be stable the following three
conditions on its system function must be satisfied.
1. cannot have poles in the right half of s plane
2. cannot have multiple poles on axis .(poles must be
simple )
1

3. The degree of numerator of cannot exceed the

degree of the denominator by more than unity.
 In the complex s –plane a pole is denoted by small
cross(x) and a zero by a small circle(o).

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Example: check the following for stability

The zeros of T(s) are: s =

6 -2,s = -4 and poles are:
s= 0,s = -1,s=-3
 4.2. Hurwitz polynomials
 Another element of realizability is a class of polynomial known as
Hurwitz polynomial
 The denominator polynomial of system function belongs to a class
known as Hurwitz polynomials .
 A polynomial P is said to be Hurwitz if the following conditions are
satisfied.
1. P is real when s is real.
2. The roots of P have real parts which are zero or
negative.
 As a result of these conditions, if is Hurwitz given by

 Then all the coefficients must be real. if is a root of P, then

must be –ve .
P ( s ) ( s  1)s  1  j 2 s  1  j 2 
 Example:
 The polynomial
is Hurwitz because
G ( s ) all
( sof 1)(its
s roots
2)( s  3have
) negative real parts.
 7The polynomial
Properties of Hurwitz polynomials :

1. If the polynomial P can be written as

Then, All the coefficients ai must be positive. A corollary is that

between
the highest order term in s and the lowest order term, none of the
coefficients may be zero unless the polynomial is even or odd. In
other words, an-1,an-2,… a2, a1 must not be zero if the polynomial is
neither even or odd.
2. Both the odd and even parts of a Hurwitz polynomial P(s) have
roots on the jω-axis only. If we denote the even part of P(s) as m(s)
and the odd part as n(s), so that
P(s)=m(s)+n(s)
3. As a result of property (2), if P(s) is either even or odd, all its
roots are on the jω-axis.(including origin)
4. The continued fraction expansion of the ratio (ψ(s) of the odd to
even parts (n(s)/m(s)) or the even to odd parts (m(s)/n(s)) of a
Hurwitz polynomial yields all positive quotient terms. As,
8 or ( Select the higher degree to be numerator)
Where q1, q2,… qn must be positive if the polynomial P(s)=M(s)+N(s) is
Hurwitz.
5. If the continued fraction expansion of the odd to even or even to odd
parts of a polynomial yields positive quotient terms, then the polynomial
must be Hurwitz to within a multiplicative factor W(s). That is, if we write

P(s)=W(s)P1(s)

then P(s) is Hurwitz polynomial , if P1(s)and W(s) are Hurwitz

6. In case the polynomial is either only even or only odd, it is not possible
to obtain the continued fraction expansion in such cases, the polynomial
P(s) is Hurwitz if the ratio of P(s) and its derivative P′(s) gives a continued
fraction expansion.

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10
 Example . Check if the following polynomial is hurwitz or not

F ( s )  s 4  s 3  5 s 2  3s  4
Since the order of n(s) is higher than m(s), we
start with n(s)/m(s).
n( s ) s 4  5s 2  4 and m( s ) s 3  3s

Obtain the continued fraction expansion of

n( s ) s 4  5s 2  4

m( s ) s 3  3s
2s 2  4
s 
s 3  3s
1
s 
s 3  3s
2s 2  4
1
s 
1 s
s
2 2s 2  4
1
s 
1 1
s
2 2s 2  4
s
1
s 
1 1
s
2 4
2s 
s
1
s 
1 1 Note that all the
s
2 1 coefficients of the
2s 
s quotients are
4 positive
 Test if the following polynomials are
hurwitz or not
P(s) = s4 + 4s3 + 8s2 +16s +32
F(s) = 4s5 +12s
3 42
+45s 3
F ( s ) s  s  4 s  2 s  3+60s2
+44s+48

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Routh Hurwitz Stability Criteria
• It determines if all the roots of a polynomial lie in the open
LHP (left half-plane),or equivalently, have negative real
parts.
• It also determines the number of roots of a polynomial in the
open RHP (right half-plane).
• It does NOT explicitly compute the roots.
Routh Hurwitz Stability Criterion is based on ordering
the coefficients of the characteristic equation into an
array, also known as Routh Array.
Suppose the characteristic equation of a control
system is given as:

Now, from the given equation, we will form Routh

Array as shown below:

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 To obtain the precise number of roots with nonnegative real part,
proceed as follows. Arrange the coefficients of the polynomial, and
values subsequently calculated from them as shown below:
• a0, a1, …., an coefficients are
taken from the equation and
arranged as shown.

• Similarly, c coefficients and d

coefficients are calculated as
following:

• (Coefficients b1, b2, b3,

……, bn are calculated as

• In this process, the missing

terms are considered zero and
elements of any row can be
• This process is continued till divided by a positive number to
15 we get zero in the row with
simplify the calculation.
b coefficients.
 • Count the number of sign changes in the first column of the
array.
• It can be shown that a necessary and sufficient condition for
all roots to be located in the left-half plane is that all the ai are
positive and all of the coefficients in the first column be
positive.

Now, the Routh stability Criteria is given as:

• “For a system to be stable, it is necessary and sufficient
that each term of first column of Routh Array formed of its
characteristic equation be positive if a0>0.
• If this condition is not met, the system is unstable and
number of sign changes of the terms of the first column
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of the Routh Array corresponds to the number of roots of
the characteristic equation in the right half of the s-
Example1: consider the fourth-order
polynomial:

In this example, the

sign changes twice in
the first column so the
polynomial equation
has two roots in RHP.
So it is not stable

In this example, the

sign changes twice in
the first column so the
polynomial equation
has two roots in RHP.
So it is unstable
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 Example 3: The characteristic equation of a system is given below.
Determine the
stability of the system.
s + 4s3 + 16s2 +10s +5
4

In the Routh array formed, if we see in first

column; all the elements are positive.
There is no sign change. Hence the system
in question is stable.

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 Example 4: The characteristic equation of a system is given
below. Determine the
stability of the system
4s4 + 8s3 + 2s2 +10s +3

Applying Routh Hurwitz Criteria and forming Routh

array. We get,

In the first column of the Routh

Array formed above, there is one
negative element. Also, there are
two sign changes in first column.
First is from 8 to -3 and second is
from -3 to 18. Hence the system is
questions is unstable and out of 4
poles, 2 are in the right half of s-
plane.
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 Now, apart from determining the stability, Routh Criteria can
also be used for tuning the variable parameters to keep the
system in the stable region. This can be understood from the
following example.

Find the range of values of k for which the system

would be stable.
Solution:
In the given system, k is an unknown parameter. Now,
forming Routh array from the
given equation

Now, in the array formed; if the system is to

be stable then all the elements in first
column need to be positive
21 – k > 0 & k > 0
k < 21 & k > 0
20 ⇒ 0 < k < 21 for the system to be
stable.
 Special Cases of Routh Hurwitz Stability
Criteria
•
However, in this criteria there are some special conditions in which
some assumptions are needed to be made. These special cases
are mentioned as follows:
Case I: When the first term in any row of the Routh array is
zero while rest of the row has at least one non-zero term.
• Because of this zero term, the terms in the next row become
infinite and Routh’s test breaks down. To overcome this difficulty,
substitute a small positive number ε for zero and proceed to
evaluate
Example the rest of Routh
: The characteristic Array.ofThen
equation a check the signs of the first
column
system of the
is given as array by substituting ε→0.

ermine whether the system is stable or not.

Solution: Applying Routh Hurwitz Criteria and forming

Routh Array, we get
Now, if we examine the elements of first column.
Since there is a sign
change at s1 row, hence
the system is unstable
and having two poles in
21 right half of s-plane due
to two sign changes.
 Example: The characteristic equation of a
system is given as

Determine whether the system is stable or not.

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 Case II: When all the elements in any one row of the
• Routh Array
In this case are are
there zero.
symmetrically located roots in the s-plane.
There can be pair of real roots with opposite signs and /or pair of
conjugate roots on the imaginary axis and/or complex conjugate
roots forming quadrature in the s-plane.
• The polynomial whose coefficients are the elements of the row just
above the row of zeros in the Routh array is called an auxiliary
polynomial.
• This polynomial gives the number and location of root pairs of the
characteristic
Example equation which
: The characteristic are symmetrically
equation located
of a system is given as in the s
plane.Comment
follows. The orderon
of the
the auxiliary polynomial is always even
stability of the system.

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In above array, there is no change of sign. Hence the
system will be marginally or limitedly stable.
Also, if we solve and find the roots of auxiliary polynomial

These two pair of roots are also

24 among the roots of given
characteristic equation.
 Example : The characteristic equation of a system is given as
follows. Comment on the
stability of the system.

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4.3. Positive real functions

Definition
A function F(s) = is positive real (PR)if the following
conditions are satisfied.
a. F(s) is real for real s. i.e. F()is real.
b. D(s) is Hurwitz polynomial
c. F(s) may have poles on the jω-axis. These poles are
simple and the residues are real and positive
d. The real part of F(s) is greater than or equal to zero that
is

 On a complex plane interpretation the right half of s-plane

maps on to the right half of the F(s) plane. The real axis of
the s plane maps on to the real axis of the F(s) plane.

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 Consider the following when F(s) is rational

1. (where L is positive real) is PR by definition . If F(s) is

impedance function, then L is inductance.
2. (where R is real and positive ) is PR by definition . If
F(s) is impedance function, then R is resistance.
3. (where k is real and positive ) is PR because when s is
real F(s) is real.
When the real art of s greater than zero,.
Then

Therefore F(s) is PR. if F(s) is an impedance function, then

the corresponding element is a capacitor of farads .

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 Properties of positive real functions
1. If F(s) is PR then is also PR. This property implies that if a
driving point impedance is PR then its reciprocal the driving point
admittance is also PR.
2. The sum of PR function is PR. {if 2 impedances are connected in
series or 2 admittances are connected in parallel, the resultant
impedance or admittance is PR (note that the difference of 2 PR
functions is not necessarily PR)}
3. The poles and zeros of PR function can’t have positive real pars i.e.
they can’t be in the right half of the S-plane.
4. Only simple poles with real positive residues can exist on the jω
axis.
5. The poles and zeros of a p.r. function are real or occur in conjugate
pairs.
6. The highest powers of the numerator and denominator polynomials
may differ at most by unity.
7. The lowest power of numerator and denominator polynomials may
differ at most by unity.

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 8. The necessary and sufficient conditions for a rational function
with a real coefficients F(s) to be positive real are
a. F(s) must have no poles in the right half plane.
b. F(s) may have only simple poles on jω axis.
c. .

4.4. Testing positive real functions

i. 8.a requires that we test the denominator of F(s) for
roots in the right half. determine if the denominator of
F(s)is Hurwitz. Use the CFE (even/odd or odd/even) to
see if the quotients are positive.
ii. 8.b is tested by making partial fraction expansion of
F(s) and checking whether the residues are positive
and real.
Thus, if F(s) has a pair of poles at ,a partial fraction
expansion gives the term of the form.

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The residues of complex conjugate poles are themselves conjugates. If
the residues are real-as they must be in order for F(s) to be PR- then K1-
K1* so that

* If found to be positive ,then F(s) satisfies the second and

third condition.
iii. To test for 8.c we must first find the real part of from the
original function F(s). If F(s) given as a quotient of two polynomials

We can separate the even part from the odd part

F(s) is now decomposed into its even and odd parts by multiplying
both P(s) and Q(s) by M2-N2

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31
 Example
s2
1. Is F ( s )  s 2  3s  2 positive real
function? s2 1
F (s)  
s  1( s  2) s  1
 Its pole s=-1 lies on the left of s plane
 No multiple poles on the jw axis
 Its real part is  1   1  jw  1
ReF ( jw)  Re  Re 2 
 2
 1  jw   1  w  1  w

is always positive.
 s 1
2. Is F ( s )  2 positive real?
s 2
Solution: F (s) 
s2
 
s j 2 s j 2 
 No poles on the right hand side.
 No multiple poles on jw axis.
 The real part of F(jw) is

 jw  1  1
ReF ( jw)  Re 2   2
  w 2 2 w
this can be a negative number. For example for
w=2.
3. Is positive real?

 The poles of F(s) are located on the imaginary axis at s

= + j and s =-j. Les us calculate the residues at these
poles.

 As the residues at the

pole are negative,
the function is not P.R.F.
Exercise
4. Check whether the following function is
positive real function or not ?
s4 12s 2  5
F (s)  3
H (s)  2 2s  s
s  2s  5
s 3  5s
p( s)  4
s  2s 2  1
 End of Chapter 4

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