Radio, Television &
Newspapers
Script Writing for Radio
Writing for the Ear
- Writing words to be heard by the ear is quite different from words to be read
by the eye.
- The layout of sentences, their order and construction has to be thought
through in order to be totally clear and unambiguous at their first hearing.
- The listener does not have the possibility of re-hearing something. It must
make sense first time, and this places a special responsibility on the radio
writer.
- So whether we are writing a 15-minute talk, a one-minute voice piece or a cue
to a recorded interview, the basic ‘rules’ of radio writing – and the pitfalls –
need to be simply stated.
Who are you talking to?
- The listener comes first. Decide who it is you are talking to. Is this for a specialist
audience or is it for the general, unspecified listener?
- The style for the ‘Breakfast Show’ will be tighter and punchier than the more relaxed
‘Hot Current’.
- The language will be different but will nevertheless be appropriate when you know and
visualize who you are writing for – the one person, the individual who is listening to you.
- Radio is not a PA system – ‘some of you may have seen …’. Write directly for the
person you want to talk to, seeing them as you write.
- Avoid talking about your listener, not ‘listeners who want to contact us should …’, but to
the listener, ‘if you’d like to contact us …’.
- Only when questions of what we want to say, and to whom, are answered can we
properly start on the script.
What do you want to say?
- Having decided who you are talking to, what do you want to leave with him or
her?
- It may be that the script is simply to entertain but it still needs thinking about
unless it is to be just waffle.
- Start by listing the points to be made and put them in a logical order.
- Visualize the effect that each will have on the listener – bringing about a smile, or
causing them to think about an issue, or to wonder at a particular fact.
- Build on the effect you create, leading from one point to the next so that you have
connected strings of thought – so much more satisfying than everything being
isolated and on its own.
- It’s important to have a strong opening – get the listener’s attention at the start.
- Grab my attention in the first sentence, tell me something in the second.
Words
- These are the building blocks of our meaning and need to be used with a little care if
that meaning is to be recreated in the mind of the listener.
- Special care has to be taken over words that sound the same (homopones) but have
different meanings, like:
- oral/aural
- story/storey
- sole/soul
- two/too
- draft/draught
- hoard/horde
- council/counsel and so on.
- Do not rely on the context to make their meaning clear. Your purpose is to avoid
misunderstanding and ambiguity, especially for the preoccupied, half-hearing listener.
- Use simple words. Aim is to express and impress
Structure and signposting
- With the printed page, a book or newspaper, it is possible to look back to clear up a point or
to check how the writer got to the present assumption.
- With radio that’s not possible, which is why the structure of our talk is important.
- So not only are our words simple and our sentences shorter, but things must be in the right
order – cause comes before effect.
- Long, convoluted sentences are difficult to follow and it is to no one’s benefit to use
polysyllabic words in complex phrases. Keep it simple and straightforward.
- Signposting is the very useful technique in any oral communication of saying where you are
in a talk, and where you are going next.
- Signposts, without being overdone, make listening easier.
- As a matter of style we avoid using the same word twice in the same or adjacent sentences.
- The ending of the talk is what you will leave with the listener, so typically: repeat a main
point, finish with a story that illustrates your theme, or look forward to the future.
Pictures and stories
- Remember the visual nature of radio and illustrate what you are saying with
pictorial colour. Appeal to the sense of smell and touch too if you can.
- Help the listener to be there, to share the experience.
- Instead of strings of facts or concepts, turn them into evocative anecdotes
and metaphor.
- Who said what to whom, how they responded, why they disagreed, and how it
turned out in the end. Real life or made up, stories and pictures are
memorable.
- E.g. describe the latest solar panel field as ‘the size of two football pitches’.
Double meanings
- In the same way that word sounds can have more than one meaning, so can
phrases and sentences.
- You have to avoid the double entendre, unless of course you intend to be
funny.
- There are two ways of way minimizing errors of this sort.
- First, get the punctuation right. Punctuation shows you how to read it. Capital
letters for the beginning of sentences and proper names, commas or dashes
in the right places to indicate pauses or the subordinate clause.
- Second, speak out loud as you write, preferably to someone else. Many times
a double meaning is avoided because ‘as soon as I said it, I knew it was
wrong.’
CHALLENGES OF THE MEDIUM
1. Most of the radio listeners are engaged in some other simultaneous activities as
well.
a. the radio writer has to shoulder a double responsibility. Firstly, from the very beginning of the
programme, by sheer magic of his words he has to attract the listeners towards the programme,
and, after that keep them engaged in it till the end.
2. The content of a radio programme has to be understood by the listeners then and
there, in real time. Listeners have no time to cross check meaning of words.
a. radio writing there is no scope for difficult words, long sentences, unknown references etc. A radio
script has to be in a language we use to speak or talk to each other
3. Radio has a wide diversity of listeners – from scholarly intellectuals to illiterates -
a. radio writer has to find a balance in his writing so that it can appeal to a wide spectrum of society.
The script
- why have a written script at all?
1. Tells us what to say, in what order, so that nothing gets left out and it runs to
time.
2. It is a safety net, reducing the stress of having to remember. Essential for
news, but even informal spontaneous programmes will have scripted notes.
3. Provides the opportunity of thinking more deeply, adding substance,
expressing ourselves more accurately, and developing the well-crafted
memorable phrase.
The Script
- We speak at about 180 words a minute – three words a second is a good guide for a
bulletin or scripted talk.
- A single typed line is 3–4 seconds, making a double-spaced page of A4 – 27 lines or 270
words – about one and a half minutes.
- Thus, a 30-second voice report needs about 90 words, and a three-minute piece for the
Breakfast programme about 540. The computer counting of words is extremely useful.
- A script on the page or on the screen should, above all, be clear and easy to read. Double
or triple spaced, with wide margins for any notes or alterations.
- Difficult words, foreign or unusual names may be given their phonetic pronunciation in
brackets.
- Clear paragraphs should be used to separate distinct thoughts or items. Use one side of
the paper, because it’s quieter to handle.
- Each page ends with a full stop.
Radio Scripts
- Radio stations use a variety of scripting formats.
- PROGRAMME FORMATS
- Most programmes on radio are regularly scheduled and do not require detailed scripting.
- The shows have been produced so often that the routines are clearly set up.
- These shows may use a programme format. A programme format is a 'bare bones' script used when
programmes are produced regularly.
- The programme format relies upon everyone being familiar with the basic routines.
- SEMI-SCRIPTS
- Some radio programmes are [Link] opening and closing segments and commercial cues may
be fully [Link] remainder of the programme is then ad-libbed or assembled informally.
- RADIO SCRIPTS
- The formal radio script is similar to the television drama script
- There are various styles, but most follow these conventions.
- ► Everything except dialogue is in block capitals.
- ► Acting directions are placed in brackets.
- ► Music directions are underlined.
Types of Script Formats
- A format refers to the way a script is designed, the specific conventions (of writing)
that one adopts to script certain purposes.
- Writers and producers use a variety of formats for presentation of their programmes.
- Most of these formats are common to radio, television, film, theatre and print.
- Radio and television have adapted these formats for more effective communication
and better impact.
- At the initial programme development stage itself, a writer must devote some time to
thinking over the choice of a suitable format for the effective presentation of his
programme content.
- Decisions on the format are generally guided by the nature of the specific subject-
matter, its requirements and objectives, interests of the audiences and lastly and
more importantly the availability of appropriate production resources.
Standard Formats that are used
1. Story/straight talk:
- The straight talk or the story format generally uses one person as a narrator.
- Illustrated talks, special reports, newscasts and presenter-graphic-presenter-
type programmes are covered under this category.
- To add a little variety, sometimes two persons/ voices are used for
presentation of materials supported by appropriate visuals.
- Fully scripted in advance, stories and talks are often used for presenting a
variety of educational materials.
Standard Formats that are used
2. Interview:
- In this format, two people - an interviewer and an interviewee-are engaged in a face-to-face
dialogue.
- The interviewer talks to the interviewee on behalf of listeners and attempts to elicit from the
interviewee interesting information relevant to the topic under discussion.
- The interview format is useful for presenting programmes on current affairs, or such information
and educational programmes in which a living scholar, scientist or expert talks to the audience,
enhancing the interest and the credibility of the programme.
- Interviews are generally not scripted. Only the opening and concluding questions and remarks
are written down and sometimes rehearsed.
- The rest of the programme is impromptu and unscripted and much depends on the interviewer's
confidence, skill and preparation. Relevant questions framed with clarity, arranged logically and
asked with confidence, tact and spontaneity, are at the heart of a good interview.
Standard Formats that are used
3. Panel discussion:
- This is an extension of the interview format.
- Here, a select panel consisting or three or more experts discusses some
subject matter of public interest or controversy.
- A panel discussion brings people of differing opinions and viewpoints on to
one platform.
- The panel chairman guides and moderates discussions. It requires no script
but the moderator or the host should prepare thoroughly.
- He should be very alert, well-informed, and tactful and should remain in full
command of the situation to ensure a cordial, orderly and meaningful
discussion.
Standard Formats that are used
4. Feature :
- In this format, a single topic or subject is chosen for presentation of its various
aspects and the discussion of facts, opinions, beliefs, arguments,
controversies and counter-arguments - all about the same topic.
- For example, a feature on cave paintings, Khajuraho may be produced
dealing extensively with various aspects of the subject.
Standard Formats that are used
5. Magazine:
- The term magazine comes from the medium of print. Just as a weekly or fortnightly
magazine section of a newspaper or publication contains articles on different topics,
a radio magazine programme can also have different kinds of items, often unrelated
to each other.
- The difference between a 'magazine' and a 'feature' is that the former covers a
variety of subject areas often addressed to different target groups in the same
programme; whereas the later deals with various aspects of the same topic.
- A magazine programme is like a visit to a fair or departmental store where we find a
variety of materials for a host of visitors or audience groups.
- The magazine programme can hold the attention of the viewers longer because of
its variety of materials.
Standard Formats that are used
6. Drama:
- Essentially a literary form of storytelling, Radio borrowed this format directly from
the theatre.
- Drama is a very interesting and entertaining format and is specially effective when it
is intended to appeal to the emotions of the audience.
- Drama enables us to present and watch people, their behaviour, temperaments and
characteristics in realistic or life-like situations.
- Writing and producing a good drama is a difficult task. Nevertheless, numerous
educational topics in History, Literature, the social sciences and other areas, lend
themselves to perfect dramatic adaptation and presentation.
- Drama is acted out by a cast of actors and requires realistic sets to present
situations and events.
Formats
7. Documentary:
- As opposed to drama, the documentary format takes a factual approach to a subject.
Here, an issue is treated in depth and all its aspects are factually investigated.
- The main emphasis in a documentary is on documenting real life - real people, real
events, real sounds and the real experiences of people.
- A documentary film maker's main job is to research and investigate various aspects
of the topic factually and in depth. He uses a variety of techniques for presenting his
materials, e.g. narration, montage, interviews, discussions, eye-witness accounts,
candid visuals and shots of real events, comments from the 'man in the street',
expert's opinion - all put together in a logical way.
- The documentary format is suitable for presentation of current events especially
social and political ones.
Formats
8. Quiz:
- It is a useful format for presenting educational and current affairs.
- Quiz format is highly stimulating and participatory. It holds the attention of the
viewers, keeps them active and fully involved and engrossed in the programme.
● It may be mentioned that most of these formats are used independently as well as in
combination with each other, depending on the choice of the programme writer and
producer.
● The choice of the format or a combination of formats, however, again depends on
the nature and objectives of the specific subject matter and availability of time,
budget and resources.
Basic units of Radio Language
1. WORDS
- Words on radio are [Link] makes them different to words printed on a page because extra
layers of meaning can be [Link] tone of voice or the inflection can communicate meaning,
The person speaking the words is therefore an additional sign.
1. SOUND EFFECTS
- a very wide range of sounds is used to generate a variety of I different meanings.
- There are a number of ways in which sound can be used.
- Action sounds are created by some kind of movement, such as a car racing by or a jet passing overhead.
- Setting sounds, such as the twittering of birds or the crashing of waves, indicate the surroundings or the setting.
- Symbolic sounds are meant to suggest an idea, particularly in a fantasy. Willis and D'Arienzo give the example of a
rising note on a slide whistle representing Pinocchio's lengthening nose in a radio adaptation of the children's story.
1. MUSIC
2. SILENCE
- Just as sound effects can signify meaning, so, too, can their absence. In this usage, silence can actually function in
the same way as [Link] sudden blanking of all sound sources can be used, in a drama for example, to signify a
switch to a character's internal thoughts or the passage of time between two scenes.
Scripting for News
● Be brief. A good newspaper story ranges from hundreds to thousands of words. The same
story on television or radio may have to fit into 30 seconds—perhaps no more than 100
words. If it is an important story, it may be 90 seconds or two minutes. You have to condense
a lot of information into the most important points for broadcast writing.
● Use correct grammar. A broadcast news script with grammatical errors will embarrass the
person reading it aloud if the person stumbles over mistakes.
● Put the important information first. Writing a broadcast news story is similar to writing a
news story for print in that you have to include the important information first. The only
difference is that you have to condense the information presented.
● Write good leads. Begin the story with clear, precise information. Because broadcast stories
have to fit into 30, 60, or 90 seconds, broadcast stories are sometimes little more than the
equivalent of newspaper headlines and the lead paragraph.
● Stick to short sentences of 20 words or less. The announcer has to breathe. Long
sentences make it difficult for the person voicing the script to take a breath.
News Script
● Write the way people talk. Sentence fragments—as long as they make sense—are acceptable.
● Use contractions. Use don’t instead of do not. But be careful of contractions ending in -ve (e.g.,
would’ve, could’ve), because they sound like “would of” and “could of.”
● Use simple subject-verb-object sentence structures.
● Use the active voice and active verbs. It is better to say “He hit the ball” than “The ball was hit by
him.”
● Use present-tense verbs, except when past-tense verbs are necessary. Present tense
expresses the sense of immediacy. Use past tense when something happened long ago. For
example, do not say, “There were forty people taken to the hospital following a train derailment that
occurred early this morning.” Instead, say, “Forty people are in the hospital as a result of an early
morning train accident.”
● write with visual imagery. Make your listeners “see” what you are saying. Help them visualize the
situation you are describing. Some radio news scripts even include suggestions for environmental
noise to help set the scene for the listener.
RADIO NEWS WRITING TECHNIQUES
● Use a person’s complete name (first and last name) in the first reference, then the person’s last
name thereafter.
● Use phonetic spellings for unfamiliar words and words that are difficult to pronounce.
● Omit obscure names and places if they are not meaningful to the story.
● Titles precede names; therefore, avoid appositives. Do not write, “Tom Smith, mayor of Smallville,
said today….” Instead, write, “Smallville mayor Tom Smith said today….”
● In age reference, precede the name with the age. (Example: “The victim, 21-year-old Rob Roy…”)
● Avoid writing direct quotations into a news script, if at all possible. Instead, let people say things in
their own words during soundbites.
● The attribution should come before a quotation, not after it
● Avoid most all abbreviations, even on second reference, unless it is a well-known abbreviation.
● Avoid symbols when you write.
● Use correct punctuation
● Use numbers correctly. .
