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Infinite Acting and Boundary Dominated Flow
Flow in a reservoir is often characterized as being one of two types, namely transient or boundary-dominated. Transient flow takes place during the early life of a well, when the reservoir boundaries have not been felt, and the reservoir is said to be infinite-acting. During this period, the size of the reservoir has no effect on the well performance, and from analysis of pressure or production, nothing can be deduced about the reservoir size. (in theory, the size of the reservoir does have an effect even at very early times, but in reality, this effect is so small as to be negligible --and not quantifiable with any kind of confidence). Transient flow forms the basis of a domain of reservoir engineering called Pressure Transient Analysis (P.T.A.), also known as well test interpretation. The field of well testing relies heavily on equations of flow for a well flowing at constant rate. Initially, the flow regime is transient, but eventually when all the reservoir boundaries have been felt, the well will flow at steady state (if a constant pressure boundary exists) or at pseudo-steady state (if all the boundaries are no-flow boundaries). During pseudo-steady state, the pressure throughout the reservoir declines at the same rate, and the reservoir acts like a tank (hence the alternative name, tank-type behaviour). The concept of pseudo-steady state is applicable to a situation where the well is flowing at a constant flow rate.
When a well is flowing at a constant flowing wellbore pressure, as is often the case in production operations, there is a period of time during which boundaries have no influence, and the flow behavior is "transient". However, after a period of time, when the radius of investigation has reached the outer boundary, the boundary starts to influence the wells performance, and the pressure drops throughout the reservoir. But unlike pseudo-steady state, where the pressure drop is uniform throughout the reservoir, the pressure at the well is kept constant and the pressure at the boundary is dropping due to depletion. This is a case where the
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boundary is affecting the reservoir pressure, and hence the production rate, but it cannot be called pseudo-steady state, because the pressure drop in the reservoir is not uniform, so it is called boundary-dominated flow.
Thus boundary-dominated flow is a generic name for the well performance when the boundaries have a measurable effect. Pseudo-steady state is only one type of boundary-dominated flow, which takes place when the well is flowing at a constant rate.
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A method for forcing one solution to look like the other during boundary dominated flow would be useful because the necessity of using superposition in time would be avoided completely. Because of pressure transient analysis, diagnostic tools for analyzing the constant rate solution are widely known and understood. Therefore, there is value in being able to analyze other types of solutions using the same diagnostic tools. The concept of material-balance time provides the normalization necessary to make constant pressure and constant rate solutions equivalent. Material-balance time converts the boundary dominated flow portion of the constant pressure solution into the pseudo-steady state portion of the equivalent constant rate solution. Plotting using materialbalance time also allows solutions with both declining rates and pressures to look like the equivalent constant rate solution.
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1. Single well reservoirs 2. Low permeability reservoirs - Pressure transients from different wells in reservoir do not interfere over the production life of the well 3. Cases where "outer boundary conditions" do not change too much over the production life of the well - Wide range of reservoir types
Identifying Interference
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Oil Wells
Where Qtot = pool cumulative production at time t
Gas Wells
Where qtot = pool total production rate at time t tce and tcae are refered to as total material balance time (for oil) and total material balance pseudo-time for gas. The three rate functions are as follows (defined exactly the same as for single well analysis, except that material balance time is replaced by total material balance time):
1. Normalized Rate
Oil Wells
Gas Wells
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2. Rate Integral
The rate integral is defined at any point in the producing life of a well, as the average rate at which the well has produced until that moment in time. The normalized rate integral is defined as follows:
Oil Wells
Gas Wells<</h4>
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Gas Wells
Calculation of Parameters
The calculation of parameters for the multi-well pool case is very similar to that of the single well typecurve analysis. However, total material balance time (and total material balance pseudo-time) is used in place of material balance time. In addition, a new variable D is introduced. The dimensionless group reD/ D replaces reD as the typecurve matching parameter for the multi-
well case. D is defined as the ratio of total pool production to individual well production. Strictly speaking, this will vary with time. However, it can be approximated as:
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The parameters k, s, xf, Area and GIP(OIP) are calculated in the same manner as in the single well typecurve analysis. The parameters GIP(OIP) and Area, however, apply to the entire pool, not just the individual well.
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(Acres) (Mbbl)
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(Acres)
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(Acres)
(Mbbl)
Gas Wells
k is obtained from rearranging the definition of:
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(Acres)
(bcf)
Multi-Well Pools
It is common practice to apply decline-curve analysis to aggregated production from a lease or pool. The extension of decline analysis from a single well to aggregated production from a number of wells is sometimes difficult to justify theoretically. For example, the sum of the flow rates from two wells with exponential decline is not exponential in general, unless both wells have the same decline. However, this concern is lessened, when there are sufficient wells to result in a statistical distribution. Purvis has written two papers in which the decline performance of a pool is studied in a statistical manner. Most of the difficulty in extending the single well analysis to an aggregate of wells is often due to the inevitable variation in the number of producing wells over time. If the wells have reasonably similar declines, it is suggested that the decline analysis be performed on an "average well per operating day", and that the pool forecast be obtained from the performance of the averagewell combined with a forecast of the number of producing wells, and adjusted by a factor to account for downtime. The economic abandonment rate for an aggregate of wells can be misleading. Consider, for example, the case of three producing wells, two of which are at a rate below the economic limit and one is producing at a high rate. It is very possible that the total rate of the three wells would be higher than three times the economic limit of any one well. Analysis of the aggregate production would result in continuation of the operation of all three wells (because their total flow rate is larger than the aggregate economic abandonment rate). Yet analysis of the individual well rates would clearly show that two of the wells should be abandoned. Another consideration in multi-well pools is to initialise the production rate of each well to a common start time. This makes it easier to arrive at the "average well" performance.
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Base Model
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Productivity Diagnostics
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corrected "Horner" time that is used in build-up analysis in well testing, for correcting the effect of a varying flow rate. It is the value of time that a well would have to flow at the current rate in order to produce the same amount of fluid (and hence honour the material balance principle). In the illustration below, the cumulative production is represented by the area under the graph. The definition of material-balance-time is such as to make these areas the same.
Where Np is the cumulative oil production, and qo is the instantaneous oil rate. For gas wells, the ratio of (cumulative production,G p / instantaneous flow rate,q g ) is still valid and honours the material balance, but it does not honour the pressure balance, because of the varying gas PVT properties. (Gas rate/pressure analysis is not valid in terms of pressure, but is only valid in terms of pseudo-pressure, also known as real gas potential). Accordingly, the simple concept of material-balance-time given by
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tc = G p / q g has limited application and is considered to be only an approximation of the more rigorous material-balance-time for gas, which must be defined in terms of pseudo-time. Derivation of material-balance-time for slightly compressible systems, focuses on the flow of liquids, and does not address the pseudo-time issues for gas reservoirs. It is fundamental to two basic ideas, namely the equivalence of constant pressure and constant rate solutions, and the harmonic stem of decline curves. Derivation of material-balance pseudo-time for gas accounts for changing PVT properties with reservoir pressure.
Palacio and Blasingame have developed a time function, which normalizes the boundary-dominated portion of the constantpressure solution, so that it appears identical to the constant-rate solution. Their time function is called material balance time and it
is defined as follows (for slightly compressible fluids): As it turns out, material balance time also normalizes production histories in which both the rate and the pressure decline, provided that both sets of data decline monotonically. Another way to state the functionality of material balance time is to say that it is effective in normalizing any rate / pressure history (so that it looks like the constant rate solution), provided that the rate / pressure history does not contain any disturbances large enough to disrupt boundary-dominated flow. A disturbance that is large enough to disrupt boundary-dominated flow, such as a sudden (and significant) decrease in back pressure, would introduce a new transient flow period. Since material balance time is designed to normalize boundary-dominated flow only, it would lose its effectiveness if a new transient were introduced. When the same type curves (in Figure 1) are plotted against dimensionless material balance time, the late-time portion of the constant pressure overlays the constant rate solution, precisely. This is an important result because it illustrates that the same diagnostic plots used in pressure transient analysis can be inverted and used for rate transient analysis, provided that the material balance time function is used.
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From the above figure it can be seen that the inverse logarithmic derivative behaves very similarly to the logarithmic derivative on a welltest type-curve. During transient (radial) flow, it has a constant value of 2 (1 divided by ). Upon reaching boundary dominated flow, the inverse logarithmic derivative falls off with a constant slope of 1 on the log-log plot. The primary pressure derivative has the opposite behavior to the inverse log derivative, in that it exhibits a slope of negative 1 during transient flow, and becomes constant during boundary dominated flow. This follows from the fact that the pressure decline for a well produced at a constant rate has a constant slope on log-log paper, during pseudo-steady state. The 1/pD (qD) data, for different combinations of re/rw, exhibit a fan of transient stems which converge into one harmonic depletion stem, when plotted against dimensionless time based on area. If the data are plotted against a dimensionless time based on effective wellbore radius, rather than reservoir area, the transient stems merge together, while the depletion stems fan out. The main difference in appearance between AG type-curves and Fetkovich type-curves is that the depletion stems for AG typecurves all collapse to the harmonic case. This follows from the fact that the AG type curve normalizes all rate and pressure solutions, so that they behave like the constant-rate solution for slightly compressible fluids. Figure 3 shows the AG type curves for a vertical, unfractured well.
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The presence of the inverse log derivative and pressure derivative plots on the AG type-curve aids in the identification of transient and boundary dominated flow regimes, in the same way that the logarithmic pressure derivative aids in flow regime identification on welltest type-curves.
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(2) and recognizing that the left-hand side is the cumulative oil production, N p , the reservoir pressure, p av, can be calculated from:
(3-a) where, N is the original oil-in-place (OOIP). The important characteristic of Equation (3-a) is that it is always valid, regardless of time, flow regime or production scenario whether it is constant or variable flow rate. This is due to the fact that Equation (3-a) is a material-balance equation. Note that if p is plotted vs. N p , then a straight line of slope 1/ Nct , and intercept p i , is obtained. Of course, p is typically not available in practice, so we must use an alternate approach to applying this concept. Before doing so, we recast Equation (3) in the following form:
(3-b) The time function, is called material-balance-time. The second equation to be used is the pseudo-steady state solution to single-phase liquid flow under constant rate,
(4) Although Equation (4) was derived for constant rate (variable p wf), Blansingame and Lee (SPE 15028) showed that it is also valid when the bottomhole pressure is constant (variable rate). Combining the material-balance Equation (3-b) and the pseudo-steady state flow Equation (4) gives:
(5) where,
, and
Equation (5) suggests that a plot of D p/q as a function of material balance-time is a straight line, very similar to the PSS plot of D p vs. time for the constant flow rate problem. Blasingame and Lee state that the importance of Equation (5) is that it is also valid for moderately changing flow rate and bottomhole pressure conditions, so long as the transients caused by the changing inner boundary condition do not obscure the boundary-dominated flow behaviour. In particular, Equation (5) is directly related to two concepts, namely, the equivalence of the constant pressure and constant rate solutions, and the harmonic stem of decline curves.
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Application of this concept to oil was very straight-forward. However, its application to gas is more complex, because of the varying PVT properties of gas. Accordingly, the simple concept of material-balance-time given by:
has limited application and is considered to be only an approximation of the more rigorous material-balance-time for gas, which must be defined in terms of pseudo-pressure, p p and pseudo-time, tca, and can be written as:
(1) and:
. Derivation of Equation (1) can be found at the end of this section, Derivation of Material Balance Pseudo-Time for Gas. Equation (1) can be coupled with the pseudo-steady state flow equation for the flow of single-phase gas, (which is the gas equivalent of Equation (4), in the section derivation of material-balance-time) to give:
(2) Addition of Equation of (1) and (2) results in an equation very similar to that for oil (Equation (5) in the section derivation of material-balance-time),
(3) where:
and:
. As discussed in harmonic stem of decline curves, taking the reciprocal of Equation (3) results in the harmonic decline equation. Gas flow rate data when normalized with respect to change in bottomhole pseudo-pressure should overlay the harmonic
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stem of Fetkovich type-curve when plotted vs. material-balance pseudo-time. Calculation of the time-function however requires knowledge of the original gas in place (OGIP). This becomes an iterative process
(1) where: DVp = Reduction in Hydrocarbon Pore Volume (HCPV) due to pore compressibility
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Assuming that water compressibility is constant with pressure Vwi and Vpi are the initial pore volume and water volume, respectively. They are defined as follows:
where:
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Derivation of Pseudo-Time
The derivation of pseudo-time requires the development of the PSS equation for gas. This development involves using pseudopressure and the time based derivative of the gas material-balance equation. The definition of pseudo-pressure is:
(6)
To derive pseudo-time, we use the definition of pseudo-pressure and the chain rule, as follows:
Where:
Recognizing that:
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(9) Where:
(10) from the definition of pseudo-pressure. Combining equations (9) and (10), we get
(13) Substituting equation (11) into (8) and equations (12), (10), (13) and (8) into (7), collecting like terms, and simplifying, we get
(16)
(17)
Where:
(18) Expanding 18, we get:
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(20)
Gas Properties
Gas properties (Z, Bg, and cg) vary significantly with pressure. The analytical models use pseudo-time and pseudo-pressure to accommodate these changing properties, both at sandface (pseudo-pressure) and average reservoir conditions (pseudo-time). It is important to note that the analytical methods focus on the Z, will have no impact on any of the analytical methods. and cg tables. For instance, inputting a user defined Bg table
The numerical model also uses variable gas properties. However, the underlying numerical solution uses the Bg and Thus, the Z and cg tables have no impact on the numerical solutions. It is clear that gas properties Z, Bg and cg are not independent. Rather they are related through the real gas law.
tables.
Thus, the user should strive to ensure that consistent gas properties are entered, if user definable PVT is desired. In the vast majority of cases, it is not necessary to use input tables to define gas PVT properties, even if a laboratory study exists. Gas properties can be predicted very accurately under a wide range of pressures and temperatures. Only in extreme cases, such as very high pressure / high temperature environments or high H2S and/or CO2 content, would user defined gas properties be required. In the majority of cases, the analytical and numerical methods for single phase gas analysis will yield nearly identical results.
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Oil Properties
Oil properties (Bo, , co, Rs) are much more complex, and require more sophisticated procedures of application, than gas
, co and Rs. The properties. The analytical models follow the conventional welltest theory and assume constant values of Bo, oil properties are usually evaluated at initial conditions and assumed constant throughout the entire analysis. Traditionally, this has been considered a reasonable approximation, necessary for the efficient solution of the welltest equations. The approximation is considered valid for short flow and buildup tests, because oil has very low compressibility, and thus its volume does not change appreciably with pressure and temperature. Extended production scenarios may limit the validity of the approximation for reasons: 1. The reservoir and flowing pressures may change significantly in a production test: Minor changes in pressures can be ignored in welltest situations. However, large drawdowns and appreciable reservoir depletion cause inevitable variations in the oil properties (especially compressibility and viscosity). 2. Pressures in the well / reservoir system may fall below the bubble-point. Analytical methods are only applicable if there is a single mobile phase in the reservoir. Extended oil production scenarios are frequently associated with free gas (saturated) conditions. In general, the advanced analysis of oil production and pressure data has limited reliability if only the analytical methods are used. The best course of action is to compliment the analytical methods with numerical reservoir modeling. The numerical model in RTA is designed to overcome the limitations of oil production analysis and modeling associated with the standard analytical techniques. Again, it is critical to understand how the PVT tables are used in the numerical model solution.
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2.To enter this into RTA, we must remove the undersaturated data component:
RTA then extrapolates the user defined data above the bubble-point pressure up to initial conditions. The undersaturated portion is automatically calculated using the Vasquez and Beggs correlation. The above process is performed similarly for solution GOR and oil viscosity tables. However, RTA provides an additional
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calibration parameter for viscosity, the viscosity modulus . The viscosity modulus changes the slope and shape of the undersaturated portion of the viscosity correlation. This parameter can be varied to calibrate the oil viscosity correlation to laboratory data.
Oil Compressibility
Oil compressibility has limited application in the numerical model and is handled differently than the other properties. Contrary to the other properties, cos critical component in the numerical model is the undersaturated portion of the data. The single phase oil compressibility is used to control the mass transfer in the numerical model for all grid cells containing no free gas. Thus, for accurate history matching in this regime, it is critical that the oil compressibility be predicted accurately. Entering user data in the co table is advisable here, if a laboratory PVT study is available. If a co table is not included in the laboratory study, co can be calculated using the following formula:
Water Properties
Water properties may be viewed and manipulated in RTA. This may be a required step under any of the following conditions: A. To properly and accurately define the total material balance of an oil or gas reservoir: There may be significant initial water saturation in an oil or gas reservoir. The compressibility of the water may have an impact on the overall solution, especially if the reservoir is over pressured. B. If water is a mobile fluid in the reservoir. In RTA, water may be a mobile reservoir fluid under two conditions. Produced water volumes are recorded and "Water" is selected from the "Current Analysis" pull down menu. Under these conditions, the analytical and numerical methods are nearly identical to those for oil analyses. The most notable exception is that the gas solubility in water is assumed to be zero. Critical water saturation (Relative Permeability tables) is set to below the initial water saturation value, and the numerical model is used. Under these conditions, the numerical model will allow water to be produced and the specified water properties will have an impact on the total solution. C. If there are significant produced water volumes in a gas or oil analysis and accurate wellbore modeling of the fluids is required.
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issues. The most appropriate answer is simply to plot whatever variable in whatever scales that will give a recognizable trend, and to extrapolate that trend. For example, in some cases, plotting the oil rate will give an exponential decline; whereas in other instances, it is the total liquids (oil+water) that will give an exponential decline. However in all cases the inter-relationship between the rates and ratios must be honoured. Some of these inter-relationships are discussed below, and are displayed in the form of performance charts. If the total fluid (qo + qw) and oil (qo) production rates are linear trends on semi-log co-ordinates (exponential declines), then their quotient (qo + qw)/ qo (i.e. WOR + 1) will be linear on a semi-log plot. (qw will NOT behave exponentially). If both qo and qw rates are linear trends on semi-log paper, then the quotient of the water and oil rates (WOR) is linear on a semi-log plot. (Total fluid volume will not behave exponentially). If both the gas rate and the oil rate are exponential, then the gas-oil ratio (GOR) must also be exponential. Often, total liquids (oil+water) can have an increasing trend while the oil rate has a decreasing trend. Their interdependence could be controlled by the water-oil ratio trend. Regardless of the declines being exponential or not, the consistency between different plots needs to be appreciated. Once two variables are fitted to a trend (e.g. qo and qw) the third one (e.g. WOR or qo+qw) is automatically predetermined. The product or quotient of two exponentials is another exponential. The sum of two exponentials declines is not an exponential unless the individual declines are equal.
Performance Charts
A performance chart is a graph, often in semi-log coordinates (log qo, qw ,qo+qw, WOR, GOR, WOR+1, WGR versus time), which displays simultaneously the individual and total flow rates and ratios. Because any analysis must honour all the components and their interdependence, the resulting decline analysis should be more reliable because more of the data has been used to arrive at the analysis. An example of a performance chart is shown below.
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Ratio Curves
The ratio curves are plots of the ratios of oil, gas and water rates in various combinations. These various combinations are utilized to reflect different production mechanisms. They are usually displayed in performance charts along with the individual rates. In this way, the interdependence of rates and ratios becomes more evident, resulting in a more consistent analysis. Some of the more commonly used ratios are: GOR (gas-oil-ratio) = qg / qo ; WOR (water-oil-ratio) = qw / qo : These reflect the efficiency of the reservoir production mechanism. An increasing GOR or WOR is usually associated with a decreasing oil rate. A production forecast should be terminated when either the GOR or the WOR become excessive. WOR+1 is a commonly used ratio. It is equal to the ratio of the total liquids to the oil rate (qo+qw) / qo. It is equivalent to 1/(oilcut). It is used because it often displays an exponential behaviour. CGR (condensate-gas-ratio) : is a measure of the richness of a condensate gas. Usually, the higher the CGR, the more valuable the production; however too high a CGR can result in wellbore liquid lifting problems.
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WGR (water-gas-ratio) = qw / qg ; LGR (liquid-gas-ratio) : is a measure of potential production problems associated with lifting of liquids in the wellbore. A production forecast should be terminated when the LGR becomes too high for the production system to handle. Water-Cut = qw / (qo+qw) , is sometimes used instead of WOR for convenience of traditional terminology.