1

KIMIA INTI
Nuclear Chemistry
2
Nuclear Equations
Nucleons: particles in the nucleus:
p
+
: proton
n
0
: neutron.
Mass number: the sume of the
number of p
+
and n
0
.
Atomic number: the number of p
+
.
Nuclear equations, the total number
of nucleons is conserved:
3
Sample Nuclear Equations
He Th U
4
2
234
90
238
92
+
4
2
He - o
particle
| +

0
1
14
7
14
6
N C
0
-1
| - |
particle
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Three Types Of Decay
Processes
o-radiation
the loss of
4
2
He from the nucleus,
|-radiation
the loss of an electron from the nucleus,
-radiation
the loss of high-energy photon from the
nucleus.
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Radioactivity
6
Types of Radioactive Decay
Ensure
conservation of
nucleons
Write all particles
with their atomic
and mass numbers.
Nucleons can
undergo decay

e p n
1
0
1
1
0
1

+
n e p
0
1
1
0
1
1
+

| -particle emission
Electron capture
7
Types of Radioactive Decay
8
Neutron-to-Proton Ratio
The proton has high mass and high charge
proton-proton repulsion is large.
The cohesive forces in the nucleus are
called strong nuclear forces. Neutrons are
involved with the strong nuclear force.
As more protons are added (the nucleus
gets heavier) the proton-proton repulsion
gets larger.
9
Radioactive Series
A nucleus usually undergoes more
than one transition on its path to
stability.
The series of nuclear reactions that
accompany this path is the
radioactive series.
Nuclei resulting from radioactive
decay are called daughter nuclei.
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An Example Radioactive
Decay Series
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Nuclear Transmutations
Nuclear transmutations are the
collisions between nuclei.
14
N +
4
o
17
O +
1
H.
The above reaction is written in
short-hand notation:
14
N(o,p)
17
O.
To overcome electrostatic forces,
charged particles need to be
accelerated before they react.
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Nuclear Transmutations
13
Radioactive Half-Lives

90
Sr has a half-life of 28.8 yr.
90
38
Sr
90
39
Y +
0
-1
e
Each isotope has a characteristic half-life.
Half-lives are not affected by temperature,
pressure or chemical composition.
Natural radioisotopes tend to have longer
half-lives than synthetic radioisotopes.
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Rates of Radioactive Decay
15
Rates of Radioactive Decay
16
Carbon Dating
Carbon-14 is used to
determine the ages of
organic compounds
We assume the ratio of
12
C to
14
C has been
constant over time.
For us to detect
14
C
the object must be
less than 50,000 years
old.
The half-life of
14
C is
5,730 years.
| +

0
1
14
7
14
6
N C
17
kt
N
N
ln
0
t
=
(

Rates of Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay is a first order process:
Rate = kN
N the number of
radionuclides
k the first order rate
constant
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Detection of Radioactivity
19
6
14
CO
2
+ 6H
2
O
14
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
sunlight
chlorophyll
Radiotracers
Radiotracers are used to follow an
element through a chemical
reaction.
Photosynthesis has been studied
using
14
C:
The carbon dioxide is said to be
14
C
labeled.
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Einstein showed that mass and energy are
proportional:
E = mc
2
The mass of a nucleus is less than the
mass of their nucleons. the mass defect!
Binding energy is the energy required to
separate a nucleus into its nucleons.
Since E = mc
2
the binding energy is
related to the mass defect.

Energy Changes in Nuclear
Reactions
21
Nuclear Binding Energies
22
Nuclear Fission
Splitting of heavy nuclei is
exothermic for large mass numbers.
Consider a neutron bombarding a
235
U nucleus:
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A Nuclear Fission Process
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Chain Reactions
The number of fissions and the
energy increase rapidly - eventually,
a chain reaction forms.
The minimum mass of fissionable
material is required for a chain
reaction critical mass.
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The Fission Process
26
The Fission Process
For subcritical masses, the neutrons
escape and no chain reaction occurs.
At critical mass, the chain reaction
accelerates.
Anything over critical mass is called
supercritical mass.
Critical mass for
235
U is about 1 kg.
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Atomic Bombs
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Nuclear Reactors
Use a subcritical mass of
235
U (enrich
238
U with
about 3%
235
U)
Enriched
235
UO
2
pellets
are encased in Zr or
stainless steel rods.
Control rods are
composed of Cd or B,
which absorb neutrons.
Moderators are inserted
to slow down the
neutrons.
Natural abundance
uranium used as a
fuel souce.
Enriched
235
UO
2

pellets are encased in
Zr rods.
Heavy water is used
as the moderator and
the coolant.


Heat produced in the reactor core is removed by a
cooling fluid to a large tank of water (producing
steam). Steam drives an electric generator.
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A Schematic Nuclear
Reactor
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Nuclear Fusion
Light nuclei can fuse to form heavier nuclei.
Most reactions in the Sun are fusion.
Fusion products are not usually radioactive, so
fusion is a good energy source.
Also, the hydrogen required for reaction can
easily be supplied by seawater.
However, high energies are required to overcome
repulsion between nuclei before reaction can
occur.
High energies are achieved by high
temperatures: the reactions are thermonuclear.

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Fusion of tritium and deuterium requires about
40,000,000K:
2
1
H +
3
1
H
4
2
He +
1
0
n
These temperatures can be achieved in a nuclear
bomb or a tokamak.
A tokamak is a magnetic bottle: strong magnetic
fields contained a high temperature plasma so
the plasma does not come into contact with the
walls. (No known material can survive the
temperatures for fusion.)
To date, about 3,000,000 K has been achieved in
a tokamak.
Nuclear Fusion
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Biological Effects of
Radiation
The penetrating power of radiation is
a function of mass.
-radiation (zero mass) penetrates
deeply
|-radiation penetrates much further
than o-radiation
Radiation absorbed by tissue causes
excitation (nonionizing radiation) or
ionization (ionizing radiation).
Ionizing radiation is much more
harmful than nonionizing radiation.

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Biological Effects of
Radiation
34
Biological Effects of
Radiation
Most ionizing radiation interacts with
water in tissues to form H
2
O
+
.
The H
2
O
+
ions react with water to
produce H
3
O
+
and OH.
OH has one unpaired electron. It is
called the hydroxy radical.
Free radicals generally undergo chain
reactions.
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The SI unit for radiation is the becquerel
(Bq).
1 Bq is one disintegration per second.
The curie (Ci) is 3.7 10
10
disintegrations
per second. (Rate of decay of 1 g of Ra.)
Absorbed radiation is measured in the
gray (1 Gy is the absorption of 1 J of
energy per kg of tissue) or the radiation
absorbed dose (1 rad is the absorption of
10
-2
J of radiation per kg of tissue).

Radiation Doses
36
The Relative Biological
Effectiveness
Not all forms of radiation have the same
effect,
Account for the differences using RBE
(relative biological effectiveness
~ for |- and -radiation and 10 for o radiation).
rem (roentgen equivalent for man) =
rads.RBE
SI unit for effective dosage is the Sievert
(1Sv = RBE.1Gy = 100 rem).
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Radiation Doses
38
Radon
The nucleus
222
86
Rn is a product of
238
92
U.
Radon exposure accounts for more than
half the 360 mrem annual exposure to
ionizing radiation.
Rn is a noble gas so is extremely stable.
The half-life of is 3.82 days.
It decays as follows:
222
86
Rn
218
84
Po +
4
2
He
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Biological Effects of Radon
The o-particles produced have a high RBE.
Therefore, inhaled Rn is thought to cause lung
cancer.
The picture is complicated by realizing that
218
Po
has a short half-life (3.11 min) also:
218
84
Po
214
82
Pb +
4
2
He
The
218
Po gets trapped in the lungs where it
continually produces o-particles.
The EPA recommends
222
Rn levels in homes to be
kept below 4 pCi per liter of air.