Radioactivity

The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of sub atomic particles or

invisible radiations by nucleus or certain radioactive substances like
uranium, thorium, polonium etc. is called radioactivity.
The substances which emit radioactive rays like α- ray, β- ray, ϒ- ray etc. are
called radioactive substances.

Natural and Artificial Radioactivity

Natural Radioactivity
The type of radioactivity which occurs due to the spontaneous emission
of sub atomic particles or invisible radiations from heavier elements is
called natural radioactivity. In this type of radioactivity, only a single
nucleus is involved and finally results in the formation of stable nucleus.
Generally, nucleus with atomic number higher than 83 undergoes this
type of radioactivity.

e.g. 238 234 + α- particle

92U 90 Th
The beginning radioactive isotope is called parent and the product is
called daughter.

Artificial or induced radioactivity

The type of radioactivity in which an element is converted into a new
radioactive isotope of a known element by artificial means is called
artificial radioactivity. Stable nucleus of light mass is bombarded by the
projectile like neutron, α- ray etc. to convert it into unstable radioactive
nucleus.
14 + He 4 ( α- particle) 17 1
7N 2 8O + 1P (Proton)

Al 27 + He 4 P30 + n1 (neutron)
13 2 15 0
Types of Radiation (rays)
a.Alpha (α) ray:
* Positive charged ray which consist of two units of positive charge &
mass of four times of hydrogen, denoted as 2He4.
* velocity is nearly 10% that of light.
* Has highest ionizing power but lowest penetrating power which can be
stopped by 0.1 mm thick aluminium foil.
b. Beta (β) ray:
*Negative charged ray which consist of -1 charge and zero mass,
denoted as 0e-1.
* Velocity is about 99% of that of light.
* Ionizing power is lower than α-ray but have higher penetrating
power which can be stopped by 10 mm thick aluminium sheet.
c. Gamma (ϒ) ray:
* Charge less and mass less ray, which has the velocity of light.
* Ionizing power is lowest but has highest penetrating power,
which can be stopped by 200 mm thick aluminium sheet.
Cause of Radioactivity
Radioactivity is caused due to unstable nucleus which can be determined by
neutron to proton (n/p) ratio.
If the n/p ratio is 1, the nucleus is stable and non-radioactive. e.g.
40
20Ca , n/p = 20/20 = 1
If the n/p ratio is either greater or lesser than 1, the nucleus becomes unstable and
hence radioactive. But as the ratio approach 1.5, it again becomes stable.

e.g. 4Be9, n/p = 5/4 = 1.25 (radioactive)

14
6C , n/p = 8/6 = 1.33 (radioactive)
206, n/p = 124/82 = 1.5 (stable)
82Pb
Units of Radioactivity
It is measured in Becquerel, Curie and Rutherford unit. The widely used unit is Curie
(Ci), which is defined as the quantity of any substance that produces 3.7 X 10 10
disintegration per second (dps). i.e. 1 Ci = 3.7 X 10 10 dps
Small units are
1 millicurie ( mCi) = 3.7X 10 7 dps
1 microcurie ( μ) = 3.7 X 10 4 dps
Similarly,
1 Rutherford (rd) = 10 6 dps
The SI unit of radioactivity is Becquerel, and
1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration per second
Nuclear Reaction
The reactions in which the composition of certain nuclei undergo a change are
termed as nuclear reactions. There are two types of nuclear reactions i.e. nuclear
fission and nuclear fusion reaction.
i. Nuclear Fission Reaction:
The nuclear reaction in which a heavier nucleus is bombarded with high energy
particles to form lighter nuclei of almost similar mass with a simultaneous release of
huge amount of energy is called nuclear fission reaction.
e.g.

The energy liberated during nuclear fission reaction can be both controlled or
uncontrolled. Controlled form of energy can be used as nuclear power and
uncontrolled form of energy can be used as atom bomb. The amount of energy
released in this type of nuclear reaction is much lower than that in nuclear fusion
reaction.
ii. Nuclear fusion reaction:
The nuclear reaction in which nuclei of the lighter elements fuse together to form
a heavier nucleus is called nuclear fusion reaction. e.g.

H2 + 1H2 4
2He + energy
Nuclear fusion reaction takes place only at very high temperature (≈ 40 lakhs degree).
So, nuclear fusion reaction is also called as thermonuclear reaction. The amount of
energy released is very high as compared to that in nuclear fission reaction. It can be
used to produce hydrogen bomb.
Nuclear power and Nuclear weapons
Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy to generate
heat, which is then used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power
plant. Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear
fusion reactions. The energy from nuclear power plant is made into electricity, which
can be used to power machines and heat homes. They produce power by boiling
water to create steam that spins a turbine. Nuclear weapon is an explosive device
that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or from a
combination of fission and fusion reactions ( thermonuclear bomb). E.g. atom bomb,
nuclear warhead, nuclear bomb etc. Both bomb types release large quantities of
energy from relatively small amount of matter.
Industrial uses of radioactivity
Radioactive isotopes have many applications in industry both in research and in
process control. Some of the examples are given below.
a) The wear and tear of piston rings and gears in engine and its prevention by
means of suitable lubricants has been studied by radioactivity. A steel piston ring is
made radioactive by exposing it to neutrons in a nuclear reactor and is fitted into the
cylinder of an internal combustion engine which is operated normally with a
particular lubricating oil. By determining the radioactivity removed by oil, the amount
of piston wear can be determined.
b) The phenomenon of self-diffusion in metal i.e. the movement of the atoms of a
metal within the crystal lattice has been studied with the help of radio-isotopes.
c) Uniformity of mixing during the blending of petrol, lubricating oils and greases
etc. has been achieved by labeling one of the constituents with a radioactive tracer.

d) ϒ-rays obtained from Co 60 have been used 6as catalyst in the manufacture of
C2H5Br from ethylene and HBr.

e) By incorporating radioactive isotope in the metal, it is possible to know as to

what happens when a metal is subjected to a particular treatment like case-
hardening, annealing, quenching, cold-rolling etc.
f) Radioactive isotopes have been used in studying the mechanism of the
effectiveness of various lubricants.

g) Radioactive carbon, C14 has been used as a tracer in studying mechanisms

involved in many reactions of industrial importance such as alkylation,
polymerization, catalytic synthesis etc.
Medical Use of Radioactivity
Many radioisotopes find applications in the field of medicine.
a) Phosphorus-32 has been used for locating some forms of cancer and malignant
growths, as the fast growing cells tend to accumulate phosphorus more than the
normal cells.
b) It is also a cure for leukemia.
c) Radioactive iodine and arsenic have been used for locating brain tumors for
operation.
d) Iodine-131 is helpful in detecting disorders of thyroid gland.
e) Gold-198 is used for curing some forms of cancer.
f) Sodium-24 has been used for examining the circulation of blood.
g) Co-60 (β-emitter) forms Ni-60 which is strong ϒ-emitter. This intense ϒ-radiation
is replacing use of radium for curing cancer. It is cheaper and safer to use.
Radiocarbon Dating
The age of a piece of wood or animal fossil can be determined by radio-carbon dating
technique which is base on determination of C14/C12 ratio. This technique was
developed by Willard Libby who was awarded Nobel Prize for this brilliant work.
Plants take up CO2 from atmosphere. CO2 in nature also contains small amount of
radioactive C14 which is produced in the atmosphere by the interaction of neutrons
(formed from cosmic rays in the upper atmosphere) with ordinary nitrogen.
i.e. 7N14 + 0n1 6C
14
+ 1H1
14
6C decays continuously as follows:
14 14
6C 7N + -1e0 ( T1/2 = 5760 years)
and is replaced at a steady rate so that C14/C12 ratio remains constant. After death of
plants and animals, the disintegrating 6C14 is no longer replaced and C14/C12 ratio
becomes smaller and smaller. By measuring C14/C12 ratio and half life period, the age
of plant or animal can be determined as follows
2.303 𝑇 𝑎
t= log
0.693 𝑎 −𝑥
 where, a = C14/C12 ratio in living plant and a- x = C14/C12 ratio in dead plant. Hence,
it can be written as follows.
𝐶14
2.303 𝑇 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐶12
t= log 𝐶14
0.693 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐶12

Thus, if the ratio of amount of C14 isotopes in the fresh and dead wood is known, age
can be calculated by above equation.
Harmful effect of Nuclear Radiations
One of the serious problems associated with the nuclear energy programme is the
disposal of radioactive waste and the monitoring of environmental pollution that
can be caused by the discharge of volatile radioactive isotopes into the atmosphere
and the leakage of radioactive material into the water stream used as coolant and
moderator. It is well known that the radiations emitted by radioactive substances and
neutrons have harmful biological effects. They can cause genetic mutations leading to
skin cancer or leukemia. If radio nucleids are ingested into the body accidentally, in
addition to the damage caused by nuclear radiation, there is a danger of certain
elements tending to accumulate in certain specific organs or tissue. For example,
iodine-131 with a half life period of 8 days is rapidly taken up by the thyroid gland
from which it is eliminated only slowly. Its harmful effect can persist for several
months and can cause serious damage to the healthy thyroid gland.Because of the
harmful effect of nuclear radiations, extreme care has to be exercised while working
with radioisotopes. Stringent safety measure are necessary for the safe operation of
nuclear reactors and in the disposal of radioactive wastes.