SEKOLAH BERASRAMA PENUH INTEGRASI

GOPENG

PREPARED BY :-
MUHD FAZLI BIN DOLLAH
 CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT

LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT IN

SUPPORT IN PLANTS
HUMANS & ANIMALS

TYPES OF Muscles, ligaments TERRESTRIAL

LOCOMOTION AQUATIC PLANTS
SKELETON & tendon PLANTS

Hydrostatic skeleton
Birds

Exoskeleton
Fish

Endoskeleton Grasshopper

Appendicular
Axial skeleton skeleton Earthworms
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
 To explain the necessity for support and
locomotion in humans and animals,

 To describe problems that could be faced

by humans and animals in support and
locomotion,

 To explain how problems in support and

locomotion are overcome in humans and
animals,

 To name the bones that make up the axial

skeleton and appendicular skeleton of the
human body
The Necessity for Support
& Locomotion in Humans &
Animals
WHY DO HUMANS & ANIMALS
NEED SUPPORT?
1. To find the food
2. To find partner for mating
3. To protect/escape from
their predator
4. To shelter from bad
environment
 The Necessity for Support
& Locomotion in Humans &
Animals
 Without support, animals & humans
would not be able to maintain their
body shape  their body collapse
under the weight of their own tissues.

 Support are provided by some form of

skeleton.
 Hydrostatic skeleton
 Exoskeleton
 endoskeleton
 HYDROSTATIC SKELETON
 A fluid-filled internal body cavity
in which the fluid is held under
pressure  maintaining the body
shape & providing support for
internal organ

 The cavity is surrounded by muscles

arranged in layers.

 The body shape of the animal

changes as these muscles contract &
 The animals are soft & flexible, the
hydrostatic fluid does protect body
parts by acting as a shock absorber.
 Examples : earthworm, jellyfish,
leech & caterpillar.
 EXOSKELETON
 A rigid outer covering usually made
up of protein, chitins &/@ calcium
salt.

 Insects – the cuticle (covered with

wax to prevent water loss from the
body), cover the body’s surface.

 The exoskeleton is jointed / hinged =

certain points of the skeleton are
flexible & can bend  enabling the
 Exoskeleton restrict the growth of
animals  the exoskeleton must be
shed from time to time in order for
the animal to grow. (ecdysis)

 Also found in the shells of molluscs &

the bony plates of tortoises.

 Examples : insects, crabs, lobsters,

tortoise
 ENDOSKELETON
 Found in the bodies of all vertebrates
including fish, amphibians & birds.

 Consist of hard skeleton of bones &

cartilage found inside the body –
made up of calcium & phosphate.

 Works with the muscular system to

perform movement & locomotion. It
support the body & protects the
organs.
The Necessity for Support
& Locomotion in Humans &
Animals
 The functions of skeleton :
 Provide shape & support
 Enables movement (locomotion)
 Protects internal organs
 Stores calcium & phosphate ions
 Produces blood cells
 A firm base for the attachment of
muscles
The Necessity for Support
& Locomotion in Humans &
Animals
Problems that could be faced by
humans and animals in support and
locomotion,
 gravitational force, friction &
resistance when moving around
 Aspect need to be considered when
describing the locomotion of an animal
:-
 Stability – when it moves, it is temporarily
unstable, but its stability will be restored
when it stops.
 Support – must have enough support from
 HOW TO OVERCOME THE
PROBLEMS?
 RESISTANCE & FRICTION – by
streamlining their bodies.

 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE – most

animals have their own supporting
structures (fins – fishes, wings – birds
& strong limbs – tetrapods &
humans)  provide the propulsive
force to overcome the problem
 The skeletal system together
with its muscles are designed
specially to overcome the
problems associated with
support & locomotion of humans
& animals.

 To initiate locomotion, the force

required is generated by
contraction of muscles, whereas
 THE HUMAN SKELETAL
SYSTEM
 The adult human skeleton consist of
206 bones.

 Divided into two main parts : the

axial skeleton & the appendicular
skeleton.

 The axial skeleton : made up of the

bones that form the vertical axis of
the body.
 The appendicular skeleton :
made up of the bones that are
attached to the axial skeleton.

 Include bones of the limbs, the

pectoral girdle & the pelvic
girdle.
 FUNCTION OF THE
SKELETON
 PROTECTION – the skull protects
the brain, the vertebral column
protects the spinal cord & the rib
cage protects internal organs such as
the heart.

 SUPPORT – act as a framework to

support the soft body parts, to
maintain the upright position & to
keep the body stable.
 FUNCTION OF THE
SKELETON
 MOVEMENT – bones interact with
the skeletal muscle.

 BLOOD CELL FORMATION – most

of the blood cells are formed in the
bone marrow of the long bones.

 MINERAL STORAGE – bones act as

a reservoir for calcium & phosphorus.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN SKELETON

AXIAL SKELETON

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

SKULL VERTEBRAL COLUMN RIB CAGE PECTORAL GIRDLE

PELVIC GIRDLE
CERVICAL

THORACIC FORELIMB BONES

LUMBAR HINDLIMB BONES

SACRUM

COCCYX
 THE SKULL
 Made up of 8 cranial bones & 14
facial bones including the upper
jaw & the lower jaw.

 The facial bones also provide

support & protect the entrances
to the respiratory system.
 SKULL

PARTS FUNCTIONS
8 Cranial bones  Are fused to form immovable joints
called sutures.
Eye sockets  Protect
 thethe
to protect brain
eye&ball.
the sensory organs.
Nasal bones  to support nose tissues
Ear holes  to protect inner part of ears
Maxilla (upper  to support upper teeth
jaw)
Mandible (lower to support lower teeth, to enable eating
jaw) & talking.
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 Known as the spine/ backbone.

 Extends from the base of the skull to the pelvic

girdle.

 Made up of 33 vertebrae separated from each

other by discs of cartilage (intervertebral discs)
which absorb shocks & serve as flex point.

 This S-shaped column supports & balances the

body in a vertical plane & protects the spinal
cord, supports the skull & provides a base for
the attachment of muscles to the back.
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 The vertebrae differ in structure &
function in different regions of the
vertebral column.

 A vertebra typically consists of a

main body (the centrum), a neural
arch & transverse processes.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
STRUCTURE FUNCTION

NEURAL SPINE Provides surface for attachment of

ligaments & muscles.

TRANSVERSE Provides surface for attachment of

PROCESS ligaments & muscles.

NEURAL ARCH/ Protects the spinal cord.

VERTEBRAL
FORAMEN
CENTRUM Provides support & absorbs shocks.

NEURAL CANAL Provides the passage of nerves from

the spinal cord.
ARTICULATING Provides surface which articulates
SURFACE with the next vertebra.
 TYPES OF VERTEBRAE
TYPE OF POSITION NUMBER MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRAE OF
VERTEBRAE
Cervical Below the 7  1st one – atlas
Vertebra skull vertebra
 2nd – axis
vertebrae
 Large neural
canal/vertebral
foramen
 Short neural spine
 Flat centrum
 Short transverse
processes
 Has a pair of
vertebrarterial
canals
CERVICAL VERTEBRA
 THORACIC VERTEBRA
TYPE OF POSITIO NUMBER OF MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRA N VERTEBRAE
E
Thoracic Thorax 12  Neural canal/
Vertebra
vertebral foramen
is smaller than
cervical vertebra’s

 Long neural spine/

spinous processes
(for attachment of
back muscle)

 Thick & big centrum

THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)
 LUMBAR VERTEBRA
TYPE OF POSITION NUMBER OF MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRA VERTEBRAE
E
Lumbar Waist 5  small neural canal/
Vertebra vertebral foramen

 short neural spine

 thick & big centrum

 long transverse
processes for
muscle attachment
LUMBAR VERTEBRA
 SACRUM & COCCYX
TYPE OF POSITION NUMBER OF MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRA VERTEBRAE
E
Sacrum Pelvic 5 fused  Vertebrae fused to
region each other

 Has four pairs of

openings

Triangular shape
Coccyx Caudal 4 fused  Bones fused to each
region other forming a
triangular shape
which tapers at one
end
SACRUM & COCCYX
THE STERNUM & RIBS
 The rib cage consists
of 12 pairs of ribs
with the thoracic
vertebrae at the back
portion of the body &
join to the sternum
in the front portion.

 Movement of the rib

cage are brought
about by intercostal
muscles between the
ribs.
THE STERNUM & RIBS
 The sternum &
ribs enclose &
protect the
internal organs
(the lungs &
heart) & play an
important role
in breathing.
PECTORAL GIRDLE
 Consist of scapula &
clavicle.

 Links the upper limbs

bones to the axial
skeleton.

 The scapula : bound by

muscles to the back of the
thorax. It is a flat,
triangular bone which
provides a surface for the
attachment of muscles.
 The clavicle : a rod-
shaped bone placed
horizontally above the
scapula.

 It links the scapula

to the sternum. It
limits the movements
of the scapula.
PELVIC GIRDLE
 Consists of 6 fused
bones – support the
weight of the body from
the vertebral column.

 Also protect the

internal organs –
urinary bladder &
reproductive organs.

 Made up of two halves,

each consists of 3 bones
(ilium, pubis & ischium)
PELVIC GIRDLE
 The pelvic girdle is
attached to the
sacrum of the
vertebral column.

 The asetabulum /
socket for femur
articulates with
each side of the
pelvic girdle at the
hip joint.
 FORELIMB
BONES
 Consists of humerus,
radius & ulna.

 The Humerus :
 The long bones of the
upper arm
 Rounded head end fits
into an open socket of
the scapula  forming a
ball-and-socket joint
(allow movement in all
planes)
 The posterior end of
the humerus forms a
hinge joint with the
ulna with the ulna-
radius bones, allowing
movement in one plane
only.

 The radius & ulna :

 The bones on the forearm
in which the ulna is
longer than the radius.
 It has a notch at its
upper end which
articulates the humerus
at the elbow.
 The carpals :
 The bones that form
the wrist.
 Consists of 8 small
bones

 The metacarpals :
 The rod-shaped ones
that form the palm.

 The phalanges :
 The bones that form
the fingers.
 HINDLIMB

BONES
Consists of femur, tibia
& fibula.

 The femur :
 The longest, strongest &
heaviest bone in the body.
 Support the tight.
 Play an important role in
maintaining the body’s
upright position & in
locomotion as it is
attached to massive
muscles.
 The head of femur fits into
the pelvic girdle to form a
joint.
 Other end, articulates with
the tibia & fibula at the
knee.
 The tibia & fibula :
 The bones of the lower
leg.
 Support the shank.
 Tibia larger than fibula
& is the weight-bearing
bone of the leg.
 Fibula is a long & thin
bone – not bear any load
 more important for
attachment of muscles
than for support.
 Articulate with the
tarsals of the ankle.
 The tarsals :
 The 7 bones that form the
ankle.

 The metatarsals :
 The 5 rod-shaped bones
that form the foot.

 The phalanges :
 The bones that form the
toes.

 The patella/kneecap :
 A small rounded, movable
bone.
 Protect the knee joint.