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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Samkhya, also Sankhya, Skhya, or Skhya (Sanskrit: , IAST: skhya) is one of the six orthodox (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy and classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school. It is regarded as one of the oldest philosophical systems in India.[1] The major text of this Vedic school is the extant Samkhya Karika circa 200 CE. This text (in karika 70) identifies Smkhya as a Tantra[2] and its philosophy was one of the main influences both on the rise of the Tantras as a body of literature, as well as Tantra sadhana.[3] The Samkhya school is dualistic. Smkhya is an enumerationist philosophy that is strongly dualist.[4][5][6] Skhya denies the final cause of Ishvara (God).[7] Smkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities; Purua (consciousness) and prakriti (phenomenal realm of matter). Jiva is that state in which purua is bonded to prakriti through the glue of desire, and the end of this bondage is moksha. Samkhya does not describe what happens after moksha and does not mention anything about Ishwara or God, because after liberation there is no essential distinction of individual and universal purua.

1 Historical development 1.1 Oldest reference to Samkhya 1.2 Gradual development 2 Fundamentals 2.1 Purua 2.2 Prakriti 3 Themes 3.1 Evolution 3.2 Liberation or moka 3.3 Atheism 3.3.1 Arguments against God's existence 3.4 Epistemology 3.5 Dualism 3.6 Causality 4 Influence on other schools 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 Further reading 9 External links

The word samkhya means number , although there have been other interpretations, interpreting it to mean Vedanta.[8] Samkhya thought evolved into a cohesive philosophical system in early centuries CE.[9] As such, there is little evidence of existence of the Samkhya school before this time. However, the ideas that were developed and assimilated into the classical Samkhya text, Samkhyakarika, are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.[10][11] Earliest mention of dualism in the Rig Veda,

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a Hindu text that was compiled in second millennium BCE,[12] is in the IndraVritra myth. In this myth, Indra, leader of the gods, slays Vritra, a serpent demon, to unleash the creative forces held captive by him. Gerald James Larson, a scholar of religions and philosophies of India, believes that this myth contains twofold dualism. He writes "On one hand there is dualism of order and chaos. On the other hand, there is dualism of Indra's power over against both the chaos and the order."[13] The emphasis of duality between existence (sat) and non-existence (asat) in the Nasadiya sukta of the Rig Veda is similar to the vyakta avyakta (manifestunmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. The hymn of Purusha sukta may also have influenced Samkhya. It contains the earliest conception of Purusha, a cosmic being from whom the manifestation arises.[14] Purusha also finds numerous mentions in the hymns of the Atharvaveda.[15] The Samkhya notion of buddhi or mahat is similar to the notion of hiranyagarbha which appears in both the Rig Veda and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.[16]

Oldest reference to Samkhya

The oldest of the major Upanishads (c. 900600 BCE) also contain speculations along the lines of classical Samkhya In the beginning this (world) was only the self, in philosophy.[10] The concept of ahamkara in Samkhya can the shape of a person. Looking around he saw nothing else than the self. He first said, 'I am' be traced back to the notion of ahamkara in (aham asmi). Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chhandogya Upanishad. Satkaryavada, the theory of causation in Samkhya, can be Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.1[17] traced to the verses in sixth chapter which emphasize the primacy of sat (being) and describe creation from it. The idea that the three gunas or attributes influence creation is found in both Chhandogya and Svetashvatara Upanishads.[18] Upanishadic sages Yajnavalkya and Uddalaka Aruni developed the idea that pure consciousness was the innermost essence of a human being. The purusha of Samkhya could have evolved from this idea. The enumeration of tattvas in Samkhya is also found in Taittiriya Upanishad, Aitareya Upanishad and YajnavalkyaMaitri dialogue in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.[19]

Gradual development
He is the eternal amongst the eternals, the intelligent among the intelligences, the one among Buddhism and Jainism had developed in Northeastern India many, who grants desires. That cause which is to by the 5th century BCE. It is probable that these schools of be apprehended by discrimination and discipline thought and the earliest schools of Samkhya influenced (samkhayogadhigamyam) - which God, one is each other. A prominent similarity between Buddhism and freed from all fetters. Samkhya is the emphasis on suffering (dukkha). However, suffering is not as central to Samkhya as it is to Buddhism. Svetashvatara Upanishad VI.13[20] Therefore, it is likely that Samkhya imbibed this idea from Buddhism. Likewise, the Jain doctrine of plurality of individual souls (jiva) could have influenced the concept of multiple purushas in Samkhya. However Hermann Jacobi, an Indologist, thinks that there is little reason to assume that Samkhya notion of Purushas was solely dependent on the notion of jiva in Jainism. It is more likely, that Samkhya was moulded by many ancient theories of soul in various Vedic and non-Vedic schools.[21]

Between 5th and 2nd century BCE,[10] Samkhya thought from various sources started coalescing into a distinct philosophy.[10] Philosophical texts from this era such as the Katha Upanishad, Shvetashvatara Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita have clear references to Samkhyan terminology and concepts.[23] Katha Upanishad conceives the purusha as an individual soul which tman (Self) inhabits. Other verses of the Upanishad consider purusha to be smaller than the

This declared to you is the Yoga of the wisdom of Samkhya. Hear, now, of the integrated wisdom with which, Partha, you will cast off the bonds of karma. Bhagavad Gita 2.39[22]

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thumb.[24] Samkhya and Yoga are mentioned together for first time in the Shvetashvatra Upanishad.[23] Bhagavad Gita identifies Samkhya with understanding or knowledge.[25] The three gunas are also mentioned in the Gita, though they are not used in the same sense as in classical Samkhya.[26] The Gita integrates Samkhya thought with the devotion (bhakti) of theistic schools and the impersonal Brahman of Vedanta.[27] The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy is the Samkhyakarika (c. 350450 CE) of Ivaraka.[27] There were probably other texts in early centuries CE, however none of them are available today.[28] Ivaraka in his Krik describes a succession of the disciples from Kapila, through suri and Pacaikha to himself. The text also refers to an earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called aitantra (science of sixty topics) which is now lost.[27] The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarikia was the Gauapda Bhya attributed to Gauapda, the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. Richard King, Professor of Religious Studies, thinks it is unlikely that Gauapda could have authored both texts, given the differences between the two philosophies. Other important commentaries on the karika were Yuktidpka (c. 6th century CE) and Vcaspatis Skhyatattvakaumud (c. 10th century CE).[29] Skhyapravacana Stra (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in Samkhya in the medieval era. It is considered the second most important work of Samkhya after the karika.[30] Commentaries on this text were written by Anirruddha (Skhyastravtti, c. 15th century CE), Vijnabhiku (Skhyapravacanabhya, c. 16th century CE), Mahdeva (vttisra, c. 17th century CE) and Ngea (Laghuskhyastrav tti).[31] According Surendranath Dasgupta, scholar of Indian philosophy, Charaka Samhita, an ancient Indian medical treatise, also contains thoughts from an early Samkhya school.[32]

Broadly, the Samkhya system classifies all objects as falling into one of the two categories: Purusha and Prakriti. While the Prakriti is a single entity, the Samkhya admits a plurality of the Puruas in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the final source of the world of objects which is implicitly and potentially contained in its bosom. The Purua is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the Prakriti is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya believes that the Purua cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. It is a pluralistic spiritualism, atheistic realism and uncompromising dualism.[33]

Purua
Purua is the transcendental self or pure consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. It remains pure, nonattributive consciousness. Purua is neither produced nor does it produce. It is held that unlike Advaita Vedanta and like Purva-Mimamsa, Samkhya believes in plurality of the Puruas.[34]

Prakriti
Prakriti is the first cause of the manifest material universe of everything except the Purua. Prakriti accounts for whatever is physical, both mind and matter-cum-energy or force. Since it is the first principle (tattva) of the universe, it is called the Pradhna, but, as it is the unconscious and unintelligent principle, it is also called the jaDa. It is composed of three essential characteristics (trigunas). These are: Sattva poise, fineness, lightness, illumination, and joy; Rajas dynamism, activity, excitation, and pain;

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Tamas inertia, coarseness, heaviness, obstruction, and sloth.[33][35][36] All physical events are considered to be manifestations of the evolution of Prakriti, or primal nature (from which all physical bodies are derived). Each sentient being or Jiva is a fusion of Purua and Prakriti, whose soul/Purua is limitless and unrestricted by its physical body. Samsra or bondage arises when the Purua does not have the discriminate knowledge and so is misled as to its own identity, confusing itself with the Ego/ahamkra, which is actually an attribute of Prakriti. The spirit is liberated when the discriminate knowledge of the difference between conscious Purua and unconscious Prakriti is realized by the Purua.

Evolution
The idea of evolution in Samkhya revolves around the interaction of Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti remains unmanifested as long as the three gunas are in equilibrium. This equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed when Prakriti comes into proximity with consciousness or Purusha. The disequilibrium of the gunas triggers an evolution that leads to the manifestation of the world from an unmanifested Prakriti.[37] The metaphor of movement of iron in the proximity of a magnet is used to describe this process.[38] Some evolutes of Prakriti can cause further evolution and are labelled evolvents. For example, intellect while itself created out of Prakriti causes the evolution of ego-sense or ahamkara and is therefore an evolvent. While, other evolutes like the five elements do not cause further evolution.[39] It is important to note that an evolvent is defined as a principle which behaves as the material cause for the evolution of another principle. So, in definition, while the five elements are the material cause of all living beings, they cannot be called evolvents because living beings are not separate from the five elements in essence.[40] The intellect is the first evolute of prakriti and is called mahat or the great one. It causes the evolution of ego-sense or self-consciousness. Evolution from Evolution in Samkhya. self-consciousness is affected by the dominance of gunas. So dominance of sattva causes the evolution of the five organs of perception, five organs of action and the mind. Dominance of tamas triggers the evolution of five subtle elements sound, touch, sight, taste, smell from self-consciousness. These five subtle elements are themselves evolvents and cause the creation of the five gross elements space, air, fire, water and earth. Rajas is cause of action in the evolutes.[41] Purusha is pure consciousness absoulte, eternal and subject to no change. It is neither a product of evolution, nor the cause of any evolute.[40] Evolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The two primary purposes of evolution of Prakriti are the enjoyment and the liberation of Purusha.[42] The 23 evolutes of prakriti are categorized as follows:[43]

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Primordial matter Internal instruments External instruments Subtle elements Gross elements

Prakriti Intellect (Buddhi or Mahat), Ego-sense (Ahamkra), Mind (Mana) Five Sense organs (Jnnendriyas), Five Organs of action (Karmendriyas) Sound (Shabda), Touch (Sparsha), Form (Rupa), Taste (Rasa), Smell (Gandha) Sky (ksh), Air (Vyu), Fire (Agni), Water (Jala), Earth (Prithvi)

Root evolvent Evolvent Evolute Evolvent Evolute

Liberation or moka
Like many other major schools of Indian philosophy, Samkhya regards human existence as seat of intense suffering. Ignorance (avidy) is regarded as the root cause of this suffering and bondage (Samsara). Samkhya offers a way out of this suffering by means of discriminative knowledge (viveka). Such knowledge, that leads to moka (liberation), involves the discrimination between Prakriti (avyakta-vyakta) and Purua (ja).[45]

The Supreme Good is moka which consists in the permanent impossibility of the incidence of pain... in the realisation of the Self as Self pure and simple. Samkhyakarika I.3[44]

Purua, the eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance, identifies itself with products of Prakriti such as intellect (buddhi) and ego (ahamkara). This results in endless transmigration and suffering. However, once the realization arises that Purua is distinct from Prakriti, the Self is no longer subject to transmigration and absolute freedom (kaivalya) arises.[46] Other forms of Samkhya teach that Moka is attained by one's own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices as prescribed through the Hindu Vedas.

Atheism
The Skhyapravacana Stra in verse no. 1.92 directly states that existence of "God is unproved". Hence there is no philosophical place for a creationist God in this system. It is also argued by commentators of this text that the existence of Ishvara cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist.[47] Classical Samkhya argues against the existence of God on metaphysical grounds. Samkhya theorists argue that an unchanging God cannot be the source of an ever changing world and that God was only a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances.[48] The Sutras of Samkhya have no explicit role for a separate God distinct from the Purua. Such a distinct God is inconceivable and self-contradictory and some commentaries speak plainly on this subject. The Sankhya-tattva-kaumudi commenting on Karika 57 argues that a perfect God can have no need to create a world (for Himself) and if God's motive is kindness (for others), Samkhya questions whether it is reasonable to call into existence beings who while non-existent had no suffering. These commentaries of Samkhya postulate that a benevolent deity ought to create only happy creatures, not a mixed world like the real world.[citation needed] A majority of modern academic scholars are of view that the concept of Ishvara was incorporated into the nirishvara (atheistic) Samkhya viewpoint only after it became associated with the Yoga, the Pasupata and the Bhagavata schools of philosophy. This theistic Samkhya philosophy is described in the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Bhagavad Gita[49] Arguments against God's existence Samkhya accepts the notion of higher selves or perfected beings but rejects the notion of God. The following arguments were given by the Samkhya philosophers against the idea of an eternal, self-caused, creator

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God:[47] If the existence of karma is assumed, the proposition of God as a moral governor of the universe is unnecessary. For, if God enforces the consequences of actions then he can do so without karma. If however, he is assumed to be within the law of karma, then karma itself would be the giver of consequences and there would be no need of a God. Even if karma is denied, God still cannot be the enforcer of consequences. Because the motives of an enforcer God would be either egoistic or altruistic. Now, God's motives cannot be assumed to be altruistic because an altruistic God would not create a world so full of suffering. If his motives are assumed to be egoistic, then God must be thought to have desire, as agency or authority cannot be established in the absence of desire. However, assuming that God has desire would contradict God's eternal freedom which necessitates no compulsion in actions. Moreover, desire, according to Samkhya, is an attribute of prakriti and cannot be thought to grow in God. The testimony of the Vedas, according to Samkhya, also confirms this notion. Despite arguments to the contrary, if God is still assumed to contain unfulfilled desires, this would cause him to suffer pain and other similar human experiences. Such a worldly God would be no better than Samkhya's notion of higher self. Furthermore, there is no proof of the existence of God. He is not the object of perception, there exists no general proposition that can prove him by inference and the testimony of the Vedas speak of prakriti as the origin of the world, not God. Therefore, Samkhya maintained that the various cosmological, ontological and teleological arguments could not prove God.

Epistemology
Samkhya considered Pratyaka or Dam (direct sense perception), Anumna (inference), and abda or ptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shstras) to be the only valid sources of knowledge or pramana.[45]

Dualism
While Western philosophical traditions, as exemplified by Descartes, equate mind with the conscious self and theorize on consciousness on the basis of mind/body dualism; Samkhya provides an alternate viewpoint, intimately related to substance dualism, by drawing a metaphysical line between consciousness and matter where matter includes both body and mind.[50][51] Samkhya espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two "irreducible, innate and independent realities 1) consciousness itself (Purusha) 2) primordial materiality (Prakriti)". Since, the unconscious primordial materiality, Prakriti, contains 23 components including intellect (buddhi,mahat), ego (ahamkara) and mind (manas); the intellect, mind and ego are all seen as forms of unconscious matter.[52] Thought processes and mental events are conscious only to the extent they receive illumination from Purusha. In Samkhya, consciousness is compared to light which illuminates the material configurations or 'shapes' assumed by the mind. So intellect, after receiving cognitive structures form the mind and illumination from pure consciousness, creates thought structures that appear to be conscious.[53] Ahamkara, the ego or the phenomenal self, appropriates all mental experiences to itself and thus, personalizes the objective activities of mind and intellect by assuming possession of them.[54] But consciousness is itself independent of the thought structures it illuminates.[53] By including mind in the realm of matter, Samkhya avoids one of the most serious pitfalls of Cartesian dualism, the violation of physical conservation laws. Because mind is an evolute of matter, mental events are granted causal efficacy and are therefore able to initiate bodily motions.[55]

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Causality
The Samkhya system is based on Sat-krya-vda or the theory of causation. According to Satkryavda, the effect is pre-existent in the cause. There is only an apparent or illusory change in the makeup of the cause and not a material one, when it becomes effect. Since, effects cannot come from nothing, the original cause or ground of everything is seen as Prakriti.[56] More specifically, Samkhya system follows the Prakriti-Parinma Vda. Parinma denotes that the effect is a real transformation of the cause. The cause under consideration here is Prakriti or more precisely MoolaPrakriti (Primordial Matter). The Samkhya system is therefore an exponent of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning with primordial matter. In evolution, Prakriti is transformed and differentiated into multiplicity of objects. Evolution is followed by dissolution. In dissolution the physical existence, all the worldly objects mingle back into Prakriti, which now remains as the undifferentiated, primordial substance. This is how the cycles of evolution and dissolution follow each other. But this theory is very different from the modern theories of science in the sense that Prakriti evolves for each Jeeva separately, giving individual bodies and minds to each and after liberation these elements of Prakriti merges into the Moola Prakriti. Another uniqueness of Smkhya is that not only physical entities but even mind, ego and intelligence are regarded as forms of Unconsciousness, quite distinct from pure consciousness. Samkhya theorizes that Prakriti is the source of the perceived world of becoming. It is pure potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty four tattvas or principles. The evolution itself is possible because Prakriti is always in a state of tension among its constituent strands or gunas Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. In a state of equilibrium of three gunas, when the three together are one, "unmanifest" Prakriti which is unknowable. A guna is an entity that can change, either increase or decrease, therefore, pure consciousness is called nirguna or without any modification. The evolution obeys causality relationships, with primal Nature itself being the material cause of all physical creation. The cause and effect theory of Samkhya is called Satkrya-vda (theory of existent causes), and holds that nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness all evolution is simply the transformation of primal Nature from one form to another. Samkhya cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe; the relationship between Purusha and Prakriti is crucial to Patanjali's yoga system. The strands of Samkhya thought can be traced back to the Vedic speculation of creation. It is also frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata and Yogavasishta.

The Yoga school derives its ontology and epistemology from Samkhya and adds to it the concept of Isvara.[57] However, scholarly opinion on the actual relationship between Yoga and Samkhya is divided. While, Jakob Wilhelm Hauer and Georg Feuerstein believe that Yoga was tradition common to many Indian schools and its association with Samkhya was artificially foisted upon by commentators such as Vyasa. Johannes Bronkhorst and Eric Frauwallner think that Yoga never had a philosophical system separate from Samkhya. Bronkhorst further adds that the first mention of Yoga as a separate school of thought is no earlier than ankara's (c. 788820 CE)[58] Brahmastrabhaya.[59] The dualistic metaphysics of various Tantric traditions illustrates the strong influence of Samkhya on Tantra. Shaiva Siddhanta was identical to Samkhya in its philosophical approach, barring the addition of a transcendent theistic reality.[60] Knut A. Jacobsen, Professor of Religious Studies, notes the influence of Samkhya on Srivaishnavism. According to him, this Tantric system borrows

Image of Kali poised on Shiva.

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the abstract dualism of Samkhya and modifies it into a personified malefemale dualism of Vishnu and Sri Lakshmi.[61] Dasgupta speculates that the Tantric image of a wild Kali standing on a slumbering Shiva was inspired from the Samkhyan conception of Prakriti as a dynamic agent and Purusha as a passive witness. However, Samkhya and Tantra differed in their view on liberation. While Tantra sought to unite the male and female ontological realities, Samkhya held a withdrawal of consciousness from matter as the ultimate goal.[62]

Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara Darshanas Dualism Hinduism Linga sarira Ratha Kalpana

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

^ Sharma 1997, p. 149 ^ Bagchi 1989, p. 6 ^ Bagchi 1989, p. 10 ^ Michaels 2004, p. 264 ^ Sen Gupta 1986, p. 6 ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 89 ^ Dasgupta 1922, p. 258 ^ P. 419 The Cultural Heritage of India: The philosophies. 1953 by Ramakrishna Mission. Institute of Culture ^ Larson 1998, pp. 4, 38, 288 ^ a b c d Buley 2006, pp. 1516 ^ Larson 1998, p. 75 ^ Singh 2008, p. 185 ^ Larson 1998, p. 79 ^ Larson 1998, pp. 7981 ^ Larson 1998, p. 85 ^ Larson 1998, p. 82 ^ Radhakrishnan 1953, p. 163 ^ Larson 1998, pp. 8284 ^ Larson 1998, pp. 8890 ^ P. 101 Classical Skhya:

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning By G. J. Larson ^ Larson 1998, pp. 9193 ^ Fowler 2012, p. 39 ^ a b Buley 2006, p. 17 ^ Larson 1998, p. 96 ^ Fowler 2012, p. 34 ^ Fowler 2012, p. 37 ^ a b c King 1999, p. 63 ^ Larson 1999, p. 4 ^ King 1999, p. 64 ^ Eliade, Trask & White 2009, p. 370 ^ Radhakrishnan 1923, pp. 25356 ^ Dasgupta 1922, pp. 2137 ^ a b Sharma 1997, pp. 14968 ^ Sharma 1997, pp. 1557 ^ Hiriyanna 1993, pp. 2702 ^ Chattopadhyaya 1986, pp. 109110 ^ Larson 1998, p. 11 ^ Cowell & Gough 1882, p. 229 ^ Cowell & Gough 1882, p. 221

40. ^ a b Cowell & Gough 1882, pp. 223 41. ^ Cowell & Gough 1882, pp. 222 42. ^ Larson 1998, p. 12 43. ^ Larson 1998, p. 8 44. ^ Sinha 2012, p. App. VI,1 45. ^ a b Larson 1998, p. 9 46. ^ Larson 1998, p. 13 47. ^ a b Sinha 2012, pp. xiii-iv 48. ^ Rajadhyaksha 1959, p. 95 49. ^ Karmarkar 1962, pp. 901 50. ^ Haney 2002, p. 17 51. ^ Isaac & Dangwal 1997, p. 339 52. ^ Haney 2002, p. 42 53. ^ a b Isaac & Dangwal 1997, p. 342 54. ^ Leaman 2000, p. 68 55. ^ Leaman 2000, p. 248 56. ^ Larson 1998, p. 10 57. ^ Larson 2008, p. 33 58. ^ Isayeva 1993, p. 84 59. ^ Larson 2008, pp. 3032 60. ^ Flood 2006, p. 69 61. ^ Jacobsen 2008, pp. 129130 62. ^ Kripal 1998, pp. 148149

Bagchi, P.C. (1989), Evolution of the Tantras, Studies on the Tantras, Kolkata: Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, ISBN 81-85843-36-8 Buley, Mikel (2006), Classical Samkhya And Yoga: The Metaphysics Of Experience (http://books.google.com/books?id=EtIm_TgCfdUC), Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-415-39448-2 Chattopadhyaya, D. (1986), Indian Philosophy: A popular Introduction, New Delhi: People's

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Publishing House, ISBN 81-7007-023-6 Cowell, E. B.; Gough, A. E. (2001), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy: Trubner's Oriental Series (http://books.google.com /books?id=xkrCRbOq-HUC), Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-415-24517-3 Dasgupta, Surendranath (1922), A history of Indian philosophy, Volume 1 (http://books.google.co.in /books?id=PoaMFmS1_lEC&pg=PA258), New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8 Eliade, Mircea; Trask, Willard Ropes; White, David Gordon (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom (http://books.google.com/books?id=V07l6gThaV0C&pg=PA370), Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-14203-6 Flood, Gavin (2006), The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion (http://books.google.com/books?id=1Uer8W670IoC), I.B.Tauris, ISBN 978-1-84511-011-6 Fowler, Jeaneane D (2012), The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students (http://books.google.co.in/books?id=zU4E5ZidVr0C), Eastbourne: Sussex Academy Press, ISBN 978-1-84519-520-5 Haney, William S. (2002), Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained (http://books.google.co.in /books?id=HEI6QwSxrjsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false), New Jersey: Bucknell University Press, ISBN 1611481724 Hiriyanna, C. (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, ISBN 81-208-1099-6 Isaac, J. R.; Dangwal, Ritu (1997), Proceedings. International conference on cognitive systems (http://books.google.co.in/books?id=V9Z0dFN3DN0C&pg=PA339& dq=Consciousness+matter+dualism+sankhya&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kmLnT_2sLtDMrQeN-_D3CA& ved=0CFAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Consciousness%20matter%20dualism%20sankhya&f=false), New Delhi: Allied Publishers Ltd, ISBN 81-7023-746-7 Isayeva, N. V. (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy (http://books.google.com /books?id=hshaWu0m1D4C), SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7 Jacobsen, Knut A. (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson (http://books.google.com/books?id=jPK2spNnwm4C), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9 Karmarkar, A.P. (1962), Religion and Philosophy of Epics in S. Radhakrishnan ed. The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol.II, Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, ISBN 81-85843-03-1 King, Richard (1999), Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought (http://books.google.com/books?id=uca8R72W8iQC&pg=PA63), Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-0954-3 Kripal, Jeffrey J. (1998), Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna (http://books.google.com/books?id=ZUnBqcyTA3kC), University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-45377-4 Larson, Gerald James (1998), Classical Skhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning (http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Ih2aGLp4d1gC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false), London: Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8 Larson, Gerald James (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India's philosophy of meditation (http://books.google.com/books?id=p6pURGdBBmIC), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3349-4 Leaman, Oliver (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings (http://books.google.co.in /books?id=x3mZOf8iLQ0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false), New Delhi: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-17357-4 Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present (http://books.google.co.in/books?id=PDflQMc1ocC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false), Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-08953-1 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, C. A. (1957), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01958-4 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1953), The principal Upaniads, Amhert, New York: Prometheus Books, ISBN 978-1-57392-548-8

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Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1923), Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-563820-4 Rajadhyaksha, N. D. (1959), The six systems of Indian philosophy (http://books.google.com /books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ), Bombay (Mumbai), OCLC 11323515 (//www.worldcat.org /oclc/11323515) Sen Gupta, Anima (1986), The Evolution of the Samkhya School of Thought, New Delhi: South Asia Books, ISBN 81-215-0019-2 Sharma, C. (1997), A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o& d=6077639), New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, ISBN 81-208-0365-5 Singh, Upinder (2008), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century (http://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA185), Pearson Education India, ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0 Sinha, Nandlal (2012), The Samkhya Philosophy (http://books.google.co.in/books?id=6lCtwAACAAJ&dq=The+samkhya+philosophy+by+Nandlal+Sinha&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xFj1TWoCdHJrAfq1qHRBg&ved=0CGMQ6AEwBw), New Delhi: Hard Press, ISBN 1407698915

Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint Edition ed.), Calcutta: University of Calcutta, ISBN 81-291-1195-0 Eliade, Mircea (1969), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Bollingen Series LVI (second ed.), New York: Bollingen Foundation, Inc, ISBN 0-691-01764-6 Meller, Max (1899), Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika, Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd, ISBN 0-7661-4296-5 Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Joseph, Cambell, ed., Philosophies of India, Bollingen Series XXVI, New York: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01758-1 Weerasinghe, S.G (1993), The Sankhya Philosophy; A Critical Evaluation of Its Origins and Development, New Delhi: South Asia Books, ISBN 81-703-0361-3 Kambhampati, Parvathi Kumar (1993), Sankya The Sacred Doctrine (First Edition ed.), Visakhapatnam: Dhanishta, ISBN 81-900-3323-9

Samkhya (http://www.iep.utm.edu/sankhya) entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Origin and Development of the Samkhya System of Thought (http://asi.nic.in/asi_books/7278.pdf) by Pulinbihari Chakravarti M.A., Curator of Manuscripts, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta. Sankhya philosophy (archive) (http://web.archive.org/web/20041023062627/http: //www.philo.demon.co.uk/enumerat.htm) Kak, Subhash (2003) Greek and Indian Cosmology: Review of Early History (http://cdsweb.cern.ch /record/607500/files/0303001.pdf?version=1) PDF file of Ishwarkrishna's sankhyakarikaa 200BC (in Sanskrit) available for research purposes only (http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_pdf/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf) Complete Lectures on Sankya Shastra of Kapila maharishi at ShastraNethralaya (http://www.shastranethralaya.org/LectureSankya.html) Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samkhya&oldid=558312542" Categories: Philosophical traditions Ancient philosophical schools and traditions Philosophical schools and traditions Hindu philosophical concepts Hindu philosophy Samkhya Indian philosophy stika This page was last modified on 4 June 2013 at 16:47. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may

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