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TESTING AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

By
R. P. Maheshwari, Ph. D.
Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
Roorkee

1. USE OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are used in a.c. systems for the measurement of the basic quantities viz. current,
voltage and power. These are also used to connect various relays to the power system. In all these
applications transformer serves a measuring functions and thus requires consideration for both its
accuracy characteristics and the means of making experimental determination of the accuracy.
Transformers used in connection with instruments for measurement function are referred to as
instrument transformers i.e. current transformers (C.T.) and potential transformers (P.T.).

The main two reasons for use of transformers for making measurements in a. c. circuits: first to
multiply the range of instrument, and second, to insulate an instrument from a high voltage line.
Large a. c. generators usually operate at a voltage of 12 kV to 33 kV and more and transmission
line operates up to the present top value of about 400 kV to 800 kV. It is necessary to have a
measure of current and voltage in these generators and lines both for metering purposes and for
the operation of protective relays. It would be out of question to bring high voltage lines directly
to switch board instruments.

2. CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
The primary winding is connected in series in the line wire and the secondary is closed through the
metering circuit. The primary and secondary are wound on the same side of the core in order to
keep the leakage flux between the windings to a low value. Operation of a current transformer
differs from a power transformer in two respects. Operation represents nearly a short circuit
condition; in this the burden is of very low impedance. Second, the current in the secondary
winding is determined by the primary current and not by the secondary circuit impedance. The
secondary burden can be varied over a considerable range with only a minor effect on the
secondary current, which is a valuable feature of the transformer in measurement work. There is
no appreciable voltage between the two terminals of the primary winding.

2.1 Theory of Current Transformers:
Fig. 1 shows the vector diagram of a current transformer.
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I
S
E
S
E
2
I
S
r
S
I
SX
S
I
e
I
0
I
0
I
P
I
m
n
I
S
90
o

Fig. 1: Phasor diagram of CT
n = turn ratio = number of secondary turns/ number of primary turns
r
s
= resistance of secondary winding
X
s
= reactance of secondary winding
E
z
= induced secondary voltage
T
p
= number of primary turns
T
s
= number of secondary turns
E
s
= voltage at secondary terminals
I
s
= secondary current
I
p
= primary current
O = phase angle of the transformer
| = working flux of the transformer
o = phase angle of total burden
A = phase angle of load
o = angle between I
o
and working flux

Transformation Ratio:
From the vector diagram the approximate expression of transformation ratio is
R = n + {I
o
Sin (o+ o)}/ I
s
= n + (I
e
Cos o + I
m
Sin o)/I
s

This expression is sufficiently accurate. This is the case when power factor of load is lagging.

Phase Angle:
The secondary current of C.T. is displaces nearly in phase by 180
o
from the primary current. But
due to magnetizing and iron loss component of primary current the angle is slightly less than 180
o
.
Phase angle is the angle between the primary current and reversed secondary current. Angle is
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said to be positive if the reversed quantity leads the primary current. On very low power factors
the phase angle may be negative.

Approximated expression of phase angle, O, is

O = (180/t) (I
m
Cos o - I
e
Sin o)/(nI
s
)

Composite Error:

In case of protection application, due to the presence of higher harmonics, vector representation
is not justified. Here concept of composite error is introduced. Composite error is defined as

Composite error = 100/I
p
{1/T
0

T
(Ri
s
i
p
)
2
dt}
1/2


Where
I
p
= primary current
T = cycle duration in seconds
R = rated transformation ratio = I
p
/I
s

I
s
= instantaneous value of secondary current
I
p
= instantaneous value of primary current

The numerical value of composite error is always higher than the vector sum of ratio and phase
displacement (due to the effect of harmonics). The composite error hence is true representation
of transformer errors. For differential relays the sum of composite errors of current transformers
involved is always a conservative estimate of maximum error. For burdens between 50% and 100%
of rated, it is usually conservative to estimate the composite error proportionally lower, but no
estimate can be made for greater burdens. Additional advantage of limiting the composite error is
to limit the harmonic contents of in secondary current, which is necessary for correct operation of
certain relays.

2.2 Errors Introduced by C.T.:

From the preceding discussion it is clear that actual current transformation ratio differs from that
of turns ratio by an amount, which depends upon the magnitude of exciting current along with
current and power factor of secondary circuit. Hence current ratio depends upon load condition as
well as frequency.

The ratio error = (Nominal ratio - Actual ratio)/Actual ratio, largely depends upon the value of iron
loss component I
e
of the exciting current and phase angle error upon the value of magnetizing
component I
m
. If angle which is fairly small is assumed as 0 then

R = n + (I
e
/I
s
)

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And,
O = I
m
/nI
s
It is worth to be mentioned that ratio error is positive when secondary current is high.

2.3 Testing of Current Transformer:

The following are the definitions of standard terminology used in the IS: 2705 (Part 1, 2, 3 & 4)
1992

2.3.1 Terminology:

Instrument transformer:
A transformer intended to supply measuring instruments, meters, relays and other similar
apparatus.

Current Transformer:
An instrument transformer in which the secondary current, in normal condition of use, is
substantially proportional to the primary current and differs in phase from it by an angle which is
approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the connections.

Measuring Current transformer:
A current transformer intended to supply indicating instruments, integrating meters and similar
apparatus.

Protective Current Transformer:
A current transformer intended to supply protective devices (relays/trip coils).

Turns Ratio:
The ratio between the number of turns on the secondary winding and the number of turns on the
primary.
Instrument Security Factor (FS):
The ratios of instrument limit primary current to the rated primary current.

Rated Instrument Limit Primary Current:
The value of the minimum primary current at which the composite error of the measuring current
transformer is equal to or greater than 10 percent, the secondary burden being equal to the rated
burden.

Actual Transformation Ratio:
The ratio of the actual primary current to the actual secondary current.

Current Error (Ratio Error):
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The percentage error in the magnitude of the secondary current as defined by the following
formula:

Current error = {(K
n
I
s
I
p
)/I
p
} 100 percent

Where
K
n
= rated transformation ratio
I
s
= actual secondary current
I
p
= actual primary current

Phase Displacement:
The difference in phase between the primary and the secondary current vectors, the direction of
the vectors being so chosen that the angle is zero for a perfect transformer.

The phase displacement is said to be positive when the secondary current vector leads the primary
current vector. It is usually expressed in minutes.

Composite Error:
Under steady state conditions, the rms value of the difference between:
a) the instantaneous values of the primary current, and
b) the instantaneous values of the actual secondary current multiplied by the rated
transformation ratio.

Highest System Voltage:
The highest rms line to line voltage, which can be sustained under normal operating conditions at
any time and at any point on the system. It excludes temporary voltage variations due to fault
conditions and the sudden disconnection of large loads.

Secondary Limiting e.m.f.: (for Measuring C.T.)
The product of the instrument security factor (FS), the rated secondary current and the vectorial
sum of the rated burden and the impedance of the secondary winding.

Secondary Limiting e.m.f.: (for Protective C.T.)
The product of the accuracy limit factor, the rated secondary current and the vectorial sum of the
rated burden and the impedance of the secondary winding.

Exciting Current:
The rms value of the current taken by the secondary winding of a current transformer when a
sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency is applied to the secondary terminals, the primary and any
other windings being open-circuited.



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Rated Short Time Thermal Current:
The rms value of the primary current, which the current transformer will withstand for a rated
time without suffering harmful effects with the secondary winding, short-circuited.

Rated Dynamic Current:
The peak value of the primary current which the current transformer will withstand without being
damaged electrically or mechanically by the resulting electromagnetic forces, with the secondary
winding short-circuited.

Rated Continuous Thermal Current:
The value of the current, which may be permitted to flow continuously in the primary winding
with, the secondary winding connected to the rated burden, without the temperature-rise
exceeding the specified value.

Knee-Point Voltage:
That sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency applied to the secondary terminals of the current
transformer, all other windings being open circuited, which when increased by 10 percent, causes
the exciting current to increase by 50 percent.

To prove the general qualities and design of a given type of current transformer and to prove
conformity with the requirements of this specification type testing is done. Routine tests are
conducted on each current transformer to check requirements likely to vary during production.

2.3.2 Classification of Tests:

A. Type Tests:
The following shall comprise the type tests:

(a) Verification of terminal Markings and Polarity:
Terminal markings and polarity shall be verified for their compliance with IS: 2705 (Part
1) 1992.

(b) High Voltage Power Frequency Test on Primary Windings:
These tests shall be conducted in accordance with IS: 2701-1992. The value of test
voltage should be chosen from clause 4.7 of IS: 2705 (Part 1)-1981. The test voltage
shall be applied between the terminals of primary windings connected together and
earth, the frame, case, core and all terminal of secondary winding being connected
together and earthed.

In this test stresses are introduced in the insulation so the test shall be restricted to a
minimum. But if the test is to be repeated than in no case the test voltage should
exceed 90% of the value given.

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(c) High Voltage Power Frequency Test on Secondary Windings:
This test is similar to the test discussed above. It is to be performed on secondary
winding to test the insulation. A test voltage of 2KV (rms) is applied between the
secondary windings connected together and earth, frame, case, core and all terminals
of primary winding being connected together and earthed. The winding should stand
the voltage for one minute without disruptive discharge.

(d) Over Voltage Inter-Turn Test:
This test is meant for testing the interturn insulation. The test can be applied on the
primary side or on the secondary side of the transformer. With the secondary side
open circuited, a voltage on the primary side is applied so that either current in primary
is equal to the rated primary current or voltage in secondary is 3.5 KV peak whichever is
lower. The voltage shall be withstood satisfactorily for one minute.

With this test, chances are there for the excessive heating and permanent
magnetization of the core and dangerous dielectric stresses on insulation. This
condition is to be avoided.

(e) Short Time Current Tests:
This test shall be made with secondary windings short-circuited and at a current I with
a time t such that I
2
t is not less than I
2
th
*t
s
, where I
th
is the rated short time thermal
current and t
s
is the rated time. At the end of the test the temperature rise should not
be more than 200
o
C in any part of the current transformer.

The dynamic current tests shall be made with the secondary winding short-circuited
and with a primary current, the peak value of which is not less than rated current for at
least one peak. The current transformer shall be deemed to have passed these tests if
after cooling to ambient temperature, it satisfy the following:

i. It is not visibly damaged.
ii. Its error after demagnetization do not differ from those recorded before the
test by more than half the limit of its accuracy class.
iii. It withstands the dielectric tests but with test voltage 90% of those specified for
the test.

(f) Temperature Rise Test:
The current transformer shall be mounted in the manner as to be used in the field. It
shall have attained a steady temperature when rate of rise of temperature does not
exceed 1
o
C per hour.

(g) Impulse Voltage Tests:
The primary insulation of current transformer for service in electrically exposed
installations shall be capable of withstanding the appropriate value as given in IS: 2705
(Part 1)-1981
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The impulse voltage shall be applied between the primary winding and earth. The
primary winding may be short-circuited. The secondary winding shall be short circuited
and connected to the frame, and case and earthed.

Five consecutive impulse voltage waves shall be applied. If a flashover or puncture does
not occur, the C.T. shall have passed the test.

If puncture or internal flashover occurs once ten additional impulses shall be applied
and if the puncture occurs for more than once in the first five impulses then
transformer shall have failed the test, otherwise it has passed the test.

B. Routine Tests:
The following shall comprise the routine tests and shall be carried out on all current
transformers.

(a) Verification of terminal Markings and Polarity

(b) High Voltage Power Frequency Test on Primary Windings

(c) High Voltage Power Frequency Test on Secondary Windings

(d) Over-voltage inter turn test

Tests (a) to (d) are performed as discussed in section (A) above.

(e) Determination of error:
This test is to be performed on each transformer. The different type of transformer has
different requirements. The ratio error and phase angle errors are measured in case of
measuring current transformers.

Composite error is calculated in case of protective type current transformers. For the
measurement of ratio error and phase angle errors Arnolds method of comparison is
used. For the measurement of composite error any method can be used as given in IS:
2705 (Part 3)-1992.

3. MICROPROCESSOR-BASED AUTOMATIC INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER COMPARATOR
(FOR CTS and PTS)

This instrument is capable of determining the errors of voltage or current transformers
with the aid of a calibrated reference standard transformer. A microprocessor can also be
used to enhance the performance of the instrument by controlling the balancing,
automatic zero and calibration routines. This instrument has the following characteristics:

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(i) 50 and 60 Hz operation
(ii) Automatic zero correction
(iii) Automatic phase angle correction for ratio error
(iv) Automatic calibration
(v) Digital display of test results.

The instrument discussed here is like an automatic comparator suitable for testing both
current and voltage transformers. The circuitry of the comparator is divided into following
portions:

(i) Input circuitry
(ii) Analog computing circuitry
(iii) Digital circuitry
(iv) Display and key board circuitry

(i) Input Circuitry:
Fig. 2 shows the connections for current and voltage transformers. This provides an output
proportional to the reference current or voltage, as well as an output proportional to
difference between two currents or two voltages. The output of this circuitry is applied to
analog computing circuitry for processing. The primary windings of CT configuration can be
multiple-wound, allowing CTs of different ratios to be tested. This allows for testing of 1 A
CTs with 5 A standard of vice-versa.
V V
STANDARD DIFFERENCE
(a)
V
(b)
STANDARD DIFFERENCE
STANDARD STANDARD TEST TEST
Fig. 2: Generation of Signal for Comparator
(ii) Analog Computing:
This circuit performs all manipulation required to perform measurement. Fig. 3 shows the
circuitry details. It has two major circuits i.e. the parallel summing circuit and the null
detector circuit. In the parallel circuit, the following are added to make the sum zero.




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Fig. 3: Analog Computing Circuit, Block Diagram
Difference signal, scaled according to range (A), portion of reference signal as determined
by P, portion of 90
o
shifted reference signal as determined by Q. The parallel summing
circuit is equivalent to summing circuit used by Z
in
. Fig. 4 shows the vector diagram
showing the relations between P, Q, standard and difference signals. A more detailed
diagram of the analog circuit is shown in fig. 5. P and Q are digitally controlled attenuators
and their values are determined by the P during balancing procedure. The zero, or
balance condition is determined by means of synchronous and phase sensitive null
detectors. Two 4-quadrant multipliers x
1
and x
2
are used to provide the detector with two
simultaneous signals, one proportional to in-phase and other proportional quadrature
component. The reference signal and the gain are maintained constant for a particular
calibration. This is obtained by two digitally controlled attenuators R
1
and R
2
, which are
also controlled by P.

P
Q
STANDARD
DIFFERENCE
TEST

Fig. 4: Vector Diagram of Comparator
STANDARD
DIFFERENCE
90
o
A S
P
Q
V
V
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STANDARD
DIFFERENCE
90
o
A S
P
V
V
Q
MUX
R
1
F
1
F
2
R
2
90
o
X
2
X
1
P Q
RMS AD

Fig. 5: Block Diagram of Computing Circuitry
At balance, outputs of two null detectors are zero and ratio and phase angle errors are
proportional to setting P and Q.

(ii) Digital Circuitry: This circuitry controls the operation of the instrument. It consists of
microprocessor, required memory, decoding and driving circuitry, an analog to digital
converter and a scanner. The microprocessor carries the following routines:

1. Zero correction
2. Calibration
3. Measurement
4. Correction and display of measured values.

(iv) Display and Keyboard: Instrument can be provided with digital display and keyboards and
printer for entering the specifications and taking the readings of results.

Corrections:
Microprocessor is used here to make the measurement automatic as well as for applying
necessary corrections, as discussed below:

(a) Zero Correction: Zero of in-phase and quadrature null detector may shift due to
temperature or change in reference input. To correct such drifts, the output of the two null
detectors is read at fixed intervals with error signals disconnected.

(b) Calibration: Following a zero test, the instrument performs an automatic calibration check.
This is accomplished by injecting portion of reference signal in to the measuring signal. This
calibration technique checks the operation of the instrument except for input circuit and
the ranging amplifier. The calibration connectors are given in Fig. 6.
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STANDARD
DIFFERENCE
90
o
A S
P
Q
V
V
R CAL. P
R CAL. P
D

Fig. 6: Calibration connections
(c) Frequency Correction: The phase shifter used here is an integrator, and its output
magnitude is therefore, frequency sensitive. By measuring the reference signal and the
output of phase shifter, the microprocessor can compute the operating frequency and
apply corrections to the phase angle measurement as required.

(d) Phase Angle Correction: From the vector diagram angle Q is computed from tangent when
tan = Q/S P. The instrument measures tan = Q/S. this discrepancy is corrected by P.

(e) Ratio Correction: From the vector diagram, the ratio error is large if is large. So ratio
error is corrected by Cos before it is displayed.

4. Potential Transformer:
Instrument potential transformers are used to operate voltmeters, the potential coils of
wattmeters, the potential coils of relays and others from high voltage lines. For all these
purposes it is important that the secondary voltage be an accurate known fraction of
primary voltage and primary and secondary voltage should be in phase. Two major
differences in a measuring transformer are first, the attention to accuracy in the voltage
ratio and second, the minimization of voltage drops in the winding, to avoid phase shift
and ratio error effect. The small voltage drops are secured by design for small leakage
reactance and the use of large copper conductors. Errors introduced by PTs are less
serious as compared to CTs. In PTs the secondary current is of the same order as the
magnetizing current.

4.1 Theory

Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show the vector diagram of PT
= working flux in the core
I
m
= magnetizing component of the no load current
I
e
= iron loss component of the no load current
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I
o
= no load current
E
s
= voltage induced in the secondary
V
s
= secondary terminal voltage
I
s
= secondary current
I
s
r
s
= voltage drop in secondary winding resistance r
s

I
s
X
s
= voltage drop in secondary winding reactance x
s

I
p
= primary current
E
p
= primary voltage
I
p
r
p
= voltage drop in resistance of primary winding.
I
p
X
p
= voltage drop in reactance of primary winding.
= phase angle of secondary load
( is small since resistance is large as compared to reactance, voltmeter)
V
p
= primary terminal voltage
From phasor diagram
V
p
/V
s
= n + (I
s
/n){(R
p
Cos +X
p
Sin ) + I
e
r
p
+ I
m
x
p
}/V
s
Rp = equivalent resistance referred to primary
Xp = equivalent reactance referred to primary
Difference between actual ratio and turn ratio
= (I
s
/n){(R
p
Cos +X
p
Sin ) + I
e
r
p
+ I
m
x
p
}/V
s
And,
= (I
s
/V
s
)(X
s
Cos Rs Sin ) + (I
e
xp-I
m
r
p
)/V
s
n

IS
ES
E2
I
S
r
S
I
SX
S
Ie
I0
I0
IP
Im
n
I
S

I
P X
P
EP
VP
90
o
90
o
90
o

Fig. 7: Vector Diagram of VT
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I
S
I
S
r
P
I
e
I
0
I
0
I
P
I
m
I
S

/
n

I
P
X
P
E
P
V
P
90
o
I
S
r
S

n

I
P
X
P
n

Fig. 8: Vector Diagram of VT

4.2 ERRORS INTRODUCED BY VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
Both in magnitude and in phase, errors are introduced by PT's. The divergence of the actual
ratio V
p
/V
s
from n depends upon the reactance and resistance of the transformer windings
as well as upon the value of the exciting current of the transformer. The phase angle error
also depends upon the same factors.

4.2.1 Effect of Variation of Secondary Burden
With the increase in burden for a case of full primary voltage and rated burden, the
secondary current will increase.

Thus, with this increased I
s
, the primary current I
p
will increase, I
o
is reduced slightly, but its
variation is unimportant. Both primary and secondary voltage drops are increased and thus
for given V
p
, E
p
, E
s
and V
s
are reduced by increase in burden. The effect is therefore to
increase the ratio V
p
/V
s
.

With regards to phase angle V
p
is advanced in phase relating to flux as the secondary
burden increases owing to increased voltage drops and to the phase advance of I
p
as I
s

increases. Again, V
s
is retarded in phase relating to on account of the increased
secondary voltage drops. Hence phase angle is increased (lagging) as the burden increases.

4.2.2 Effect of Power Factor of Secondary Burden
As the P.F. is reduced, I
p
becomes more nearly in phase with I
o
, voltage V
p
and V
s
move
more nearly in phase with E and E
s
respectively and since the voltage drops in the windings,
Page 15 of 15

for a given volt-ampere load, are very little influenced by power factor of the load, the
result is an increase in V
p
relative to E
p
and a reduction of V
s
relative to E
s
. Hence ratio
increases as the p.f. of burden decrease.

Since V
s
is advanced in phase and V
p
retarted in phase, the phase of the transformer is
reduced (lagging) or increased (leading).

4.2.3 Effect of Frequency
For a given supplied voltage, reduction of frequency result in an increase in the core flux,
with a corresponding increase in the exciting current I
o
. Since the exciting current does not
influence the transformer errors very seriously the effect of variation of frequency are not
so great as in case of CT's. The reactance voltage drops in the windings are also
proportional to frequency.

Hence, the result of reduction of frequency, in the case of ratio error, dependent upon the
relative value of I
o
and the reactance of the windings. Since increase in I
o
tends to increase
the ratio, whilst the reduction of the reactance voltage drops tends to reduce it.

As regards phase angle, both effects retard V
p
in phase relative to and the reduction of
secondary reactance advance V
s
in phase. Thus the phase angle is reduced (lagging) as the
frequency is reduced.

Difference in behavior of Voltage Transformer as compared to Current Transformers.

(a) The magnetic circuit of voltage transformer is operated at a high and nearly constant flux
density where as core of current transformer is operated at low and variable flux density.

(b) Because of high and constant flux density in voltage transformer s core, change in ratio and
phase angle with changing burden are predictable, in terms of either total transformer
impedance or limited performance data at selected burdens. This is not possible in CTs as
flux is not constant with changing burden and its performance depends upon secondary
impedance.

(c) Because flux in voltage transformer is always high (near saturation), so significant
change/rise occur when the secondary circuit is opened and transformer is not injured. On
the other hand to open the secondary circuit of an operating CT is exceedingly hazardous
and should never be done, because very large flux increase in core can produce a
dangerously high voltage.

(d) There can be no significant permanent magnetization in voltage transformers as operating
flux is normally near saturation, where as one must always be alert to the possibility of
permanent magnetization of the core of CT. With the result its ratio and phase angle may
change significantly.