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Riccardo C. Storti
rstorti@deltagroupengineering.com
Delta Group Engineering (dgE)
Keywords: CMBR, Cosmological Expansion / Inflation, Dark Energy / Matter, Gravitation, Hubble
constant.
Abstract
Pursuant to the synoptic results presented in [1], this manuscript sets forth modelling
propositions for community consideration, directly resulting in the derivation of critical
Cosmological information such as the present values of the Hubble constant “H0” and Cosmic-
Microwave-Background-Radiation (CMBR) temperature “T0”. The key concepts presented herein
are that: (i) Photons possess mass (i.e. a Photon is a propagating “piece of matter”) and
consequently (ii), “Dark Matter / Energy” is not required to mathematically articulate and precisely
numerically determine “H0” and “T0”. The accelerated Cosmological expansion phenomenon (i.e.
“dH/dt > 0”) is derived organically from Particle-Physics, in favourable agreement with
experimental evidence. Therefore, it is proposed that the observational suggestion for the existence
of “Dark Matter” may be explained by halos of ejected Gravitons existing as conjugate
wavefunction pairs of non-zero mass Photons. [2, 3, 4] Moreover, it is demonstrated in [5] that
“Dark Energy” is analogous to the Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) energy associated with the Casimir
Effect, acting on a Cosmological scale.
i. Quantum Vacuum (QV) is a generalised theoretical Quantum Mechanical reference to the
space-time manifold of General Relativity (GR).
ii. ZPF refers to the ground-state of the QV.
iii. Polarisable Vacuum (PV) refers to a polarised form (i.e. non-ground-state) of the ZPF / QV.
Table 1: Applied Definitions,
The primary methodology applied to resolve this dilemma and achieve the stated objectives
is termed Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM). The initial premise in the development of the EGM
method is the assumption that gravity and ElectroMagnetism may be unified via Quantum
Mechanics (QM) in terms of the QV, utilising Buckingham “Π” Theory (BPT) and Dimensional
Analysis Techniques (DAT’s). In order to compare a mathematical model to a physical system, it
must possess Dynamic, Kinematic or Geometric similarity to the real-world (any or all of these if
applicable). “Dynamic similarity” relates forces, “Kinematic similarity” relates motion and
“Geometric similarity” relates shape (i.e. the topology of space-time curvature within the context of
GR).
An obvious question arising thus far is; how may Gravity be unified with ElectroMagnetism
in (at least) a convenient mathematical sense? This may be achieved as follows;
i. Assume that all matter radiates Gravitons into the QV. Let a Graviton be
defined as a coupled pair of transverse ElectroMagnetic (EM) plane waves,
propagating in the same direction, phased and orientated in such a manner that
the Electric and Magnetic fields sum to zero. The EM energy is not annihilated
by zero summation; it is conserved and may be transformed into an equivalent
representation of space-time manifold stress within General Relativity (GR).
ii. Let the mass of a Photon and Graviton be given by “mγγ ≤ 3.2 x10-45(eV)” and
“mgg = 2mγγ” respectively. [2, 3] Leading to the proposition that the minimum
gravitational lifetime of starving matter is given by “TL = h/mγγ = 2h/mgg;
where, “h = 6.6260693 x10-34(Js)”. [5]
iii. As a consequence of the definition of a Graviton applied herein, the Electric
charge on all fundamental particles (where applicable), may be usefully
neglected (i.e. rendering them electrically neutral for the purposes of the stated
objectives), without impinging upon the proposed methodology for the quasi-
unification of ElectroMagnetism and Gravity.
ote: within the EGM construct, the Photon is considered to be a massive particle; consequently,
the Weinberg-Witten Theorem is inapplicable.
Two distinct and practical advantages exist for representing Gravitons in accordance with
the EGM construct, these are;
iv. It avoids (not dismisses) the classical “many orders of magnitude” problem
when relating Gravitational and Electrical forces.
v. A single paradigm is applicable to all matter.
EGM is an engineering approach, not a theory, it is a tool for mathematically simulating
real-world systems in order to model physical problems in GR and QM utilising standard
engineering techniques. EGM asserts that Gravity is the result of an interaction between matter and
the space-time manifold; leading to the following precepts,
vi. An object at rest polarises the QV surrounding it (see Figure 1).
vii. An object at rest is in equilibrium with the QV surrounding it (see Figure 1).
viii. The Quantum-Vacuum-Energy (QVE) [i.e. the gravitational field energy]
surrounding an object at rest is equivalent to “E = mc2”.
ix. The frequency distribution of the spectral energy density of the QV
surrounding an object at rest is cubic. The cubic form of the Spectral Energy
Density of the QV was determined mathematically in a manuscript
formulating the Quantum-Vacuum-Inertia-Hypothesis (QVIH). [8]
2 Cosmology
EGM represents a single paradigm which may be applied to precisely derive Cosmological
measurements such as “H0” and “T0” (it is demonstrated that “T0” may be derived from “H0”). The
EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles serves to validate and substantiate the
evolutionary epochs of our Universe, as science has come to understand them, since the time of the
“Big-Bang”. EGM models mass-objects as being in equilibrium with the QV such that the energy
state of matter describes the energy state of the vacuum. Hence, “H0” and “T0” represent
observational evidence of Cosmological mass-energy equilibration.
Invoking principles of similitude, “H0” is derived by relating the PV spectrum of a “Planck-
Particle” (representing the Universe at the instant of the “Big-Bang”) to the present-day utilising the
“Milky-Way” Galaxy as a basis for comparison. Within the EGM construct, a “Planck-Particle”
denotes the condition of maximum permissible energy density, representing the Universe
compacted to a point. As mass-energy density increases, the PV modal bandwidth compresses such
that for a particle approaching the Planck Scale, the PV spectrum converges into a single mode
approaching the Planck Frequency.
Galaxies are homogeneously distributed throughout the Universe and are “approximately” in
the same stage of evolution. Hence, it follows that we may utilise our own “Milky-Way” Galaxy as
a universal reference to yield an average value of Cosmological gravitational intensity. Utilising
astronomical estimates of total Galactic mass and radius, we may represent the “Milky-Way” as a
“particle” at the centre of the galaxy, termed the “Galactic Reference Particle” (GRP). The radiant
gravitational intensity of the GRP may be calculated from its PV spectral limit.
The GRP is representative of the total mass-energy density and vacuum equilibrium state of
the Universe at the present time; as viewed by instrumentation within our solar system. Thus, “H0”
is derived by comparing the “Planck-Particle Universe” at the instant of creation to the GRP;
facilitated by utilisation of the harmonic representation of fundamental particles.
Relating the Cosmological expansion of the primordial “Planck-Particle Universe” to the
GRP yields an expansive scaling factor “KT”. Subsequently, Wien’s displacement law is applied to
determine a thermodynamic scaling factor “TW” quantifying the manner in which Photons radiated
at the instant of the “Big-Bang” have red-shifted to the microwave range after Hubble time. The
microwave frequency is converted to temperature by relating “KT” and “TW”, producing a value of
“T0” precisely matching physical measurement.
The resulting history of the CMBR temperature corroborates with all epochs of cosmic
evolution as predicted by the SMoC. The theory of early “cosmic inflation” is reinforced and the
recently measured “accelerated expansion” is derived. The Cosmological inflation and accelerated
expansion phenomena emerge naturally within the EGM construct and are not presumed “a priori”
as part of the modeling process. The EGM construct generates the inflationary epoch from first
principles, derived from Particle-Physics. Even though the cosmic inflation epoch is a contrivance
introduced to fit a theory, EGM substantiates its existence because it emerges as a natural
consequence of the derivation of “H0” and “T0”. However, the existence of dark energy / matter
must be questioned due to the fact that the EGM method predicts “H0”, “T0” and Cosmological
inflation / accelerated expansion, without invoking dark matter or energy; producing results
substantially more precise than the SMoC. Within the EGM construct, the contribution of dark
matter / energy to the Cosmological model is shown to be “< 1(%)”.
The EGM construct produces “H0” and “T0” formulations of approximately
“67.0843(km/s/Mpc)” and “2.7248(K)” respectively [“T0” experimental tolerance is presently
“2.725 ± 0.001(K)”]. The derivation of “H0” and “T0” is possible assuming that, instantaneously
prior to the “Big-Bang”, the “Primordial Universe” was analogous to a homogeneous Planck scale
particle of maximum permissible energy density, characterised by a single EGM wavefunction.
Simultaneously, the “Milky-Way” is represented as a Planck scale object of equivalent total
Galactic mass “MG”, acting as a GRP characterised by a large number of EGM wavefunctions with
respect to the solar distance from the Galactic centre “Ro”.
This facilitates a comparative analysis between the Primordial and Galactic particle
representations yielding “H0” in terms of “Ro” and “MG”. Moreover, the analysis is extended by
determining the theoretical frequency shift of a fictitious Graviton radiated from the Primordial
particle, yielding “T0” in terms of “H0”. Consequently, by utilising the experimental value of “T0”,
improved estimates for “Ro” and “MG” are derived as being approximately “8.1072(kpc)” and
“6.3142 x1011(solar-masses)” respectively. The key mathematical facts derived and subsequently
analysed in [5, 6, 7] are as follows,
Key Mathematical Fact SMoC EGM
Dark Matter / Energy required Yes No
Maximum Cosmological Temperature ≈ 1031(K) Yes Yes
Big Bang Temperature = 0(K) No Yes
Unification with Particle-Physics No Yes
Relationship between “H0” and “T0” No Yes
Precise determination of distinct Cosmological evolutionary phases No Yes
Sign of the Deceleration Parameter is in agreement with expectation No Yes
Prediction of “Accelerated Cosmological Expansion” No Yes
Table 2: SMoC vs. EGM,
3 Conclusion
Bibliography
[1] The natural philosophy of the cosmos (A); Riccardo C. Storti, Proc. of the 18th National
Congress [Australian Institute of Physics (AIP)], 2008, Pg. 231-234, ISBN 1-876346-57-4.
{Available for download: http://www.lulu.com/content/4852726}
[2] Derivation of the photon mass-energy threshold; Riccardo C. Storti and Todd J. Desiato, Proc.
SPIE 5866, 207 (2005), DOI:10.1117/12.614634.
[3] Derivation of the photon and graviton mass-energies and radii; Riccardo C. Storti and Todd J.
Desiato, Proc. SPIE 5866, 214 (2005), DOI:10.1117/12.633511.
[4] The natural philosophy of fundamental particles; Riccardo C. Storti, Proc. SPIE 6664, 66640J
(2007), DOI:10.1117/12.725545.
[5] Quinta Essentia: A Practical Guide to Space-Time Engineering – Part 4; Riccardo C. Storti,
ISBN-13: 978-1847533548, LuLu Press.
{Available for download: http://www.lulu.com/content/795547}
[6] Quinta Essentia: A Practical Guide to Space-Time Engineering – Part 3; Riccardo C. Storti,
ISBN-13: 978-1847539427, LuLu Press.
{Available for download: http://www.lulu.com/content/471178}
[7] Quinta Essentia: A Practical Guide to Space-Time Engineering – Part 2; Riccardo C. Storti, &
G. S. Diemer, ISBN-13: 978-1847993618, LuLu Press.
{Available for download: http://www.lulu.com/content/1540406}
[8] B. Haisch & A. Rueda, “On the relation between a Zero-Point-Field-Induced inertial effect and
the Einstein-de Broglie formula” Physics Letters A, 268, 224, (2000).
Appendix A