The Sangiran Formation Lower Lahar (Central Java, Indonesia): Landscape Development Preceding Homo Erectus Immigration

E. Arthur Bettis IIIa*, Yahdi Zaimb, Roy R. Larickc, Russell L. Ciochonc, Sumintod, Yan Rizalb, Mark Reagana, Matthew Heizlere

Department of Geoscience, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242-4529, USA Department of Geology, Institute of Technology Bandung, Jalan Ganesha, no. 10, Bandung 40132, Indonesia

Department of Anthropology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242-1322, USA Geological Research and Development Centre, Jalan Dr. Junjunan no. 236, Bandung 40174, Indonesia

New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, Socorro, New Mexico, 87801-4796,

USA *address for correspondence and proofs Abstract The Sangiran Dome is the primary stratigraphic window for the Solo Basin, a coastal feature on the Plio-Pleistocene Sundan subcontinent south margin. In the Dome, the Lower Lahar unit (LLU) is a lahar-type debris flow overlying near-shore marine sediments. The event that emplaced the LLU likely originated from sector collapse on a neighboring volcanic edifice. Fossil molluscs indicate that swamps or shallow lakes lay between the edifice and the current Dome area.
40

Ar/39Ar analyses

on hornblende separates from six pumice lenses suggest that the LLU was deposited as early as 1.900.02 Ma. The LLU event transformed late Pliocene near-shore marine environments into estuarine and paludal settings. Shortly thereafter, glacioeustatic sea level decreases completed the

local transition to fully terrestrial environments that attracted Homo erectus to southernmost Sunda.

Keywords: Solo Basin, Sundan subcontinent, lahar, 40Ar/39Ar step heating, Homo erectus

1. Introduction The Sangiran Dome is situated in Indonesias Central Java Province, 12-20 km north of the city of Solo (Figure 1). The Sangiran Dome offers a stratigraphic window into the Solo Basin, a prominent Plio-Pleistocene feature on the southern coast of the former Sundan subcontinent. For more than a century, Dome localities have yielded early Pleistocene Homo erectus and other important vertebrate fossils. The feature was declared a World Heritage site by the 20th World Heritage Committee in December 1996 (Widianto et al., 1996). The Dome has a long history of colonial, national and international research focusing on stratigraphy and paleontology. In recent years archaeological and paleoanthropological attention has turned to the ecological conditions under which Plio-Pleistocene terrestrial fauna dispersed across the emergent subcontinent to inhabit its southernmost reaches (Huffman, 1999; Larick et al., 2000; OSullivan et al., 2001). This paper presents new geological data on the Lower Lahar unit (LLU), a mass flow deposit and event that had a quick and major role in transforming the Solo Basin littoral toward a number of terrestrial habitats that attracted Homo erectus and other large terrestrial mammals to the Solo Basin. We describe the sedimentology, stratigraphy, and age of the LLU as the first step in understanding the nature of environmental changes that made the southern Sunda attractive to Homo erectus.

2. Geology of the Sangiran Dome Within the Sangiran Dome, Homo erectus fossils are found in a long sequence of deposits that

range from lacustrine-paludal in the upper Sangiran Formation, to riverine in the overlying lower and middle Bapang Formation (Figure 1). During the late Middle Pleistocene, well after Homo erectus disappeared from the Basin, a series of mud volcanoes domed the area presently known as Sangiran. Consequently, several tributaries of the Solo River have dissected the dome, formed hilly topography, and exhumed Late Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits relating to Solo Basin infilling. The oldest exposed sediments ring four mud volcanoes at the Domes center . These are the marine limestones, siltstones, mudstones and muddy sandstones of the Puren (Kalibeng) Formation (Figures 1, 2 and 3a). The fauna includes an abundance of Anadara sp. marine molluscs, and rare freshwater forms such as Corbicula sp. These forms suggest deposition in a shallow marine environment. The overlying Sangiran (Pucangan) Formation has two members; the LLU is the lower and the black clay is the upper. The black clay includes dark-colored siltstones and mudstones that accumulated in shallow marine, brackish-water, and paludal environments. Thin water-laid tuff layers occur throughout the black clay to form about 3% of its total thickness (Yoshikawa and Suminto, 1985). The upper two-thirds of the black clay yields fossils of terrestrial vertebrates well adapted to paludal conditions (Aimi and Aziz, 1985). Homo erectus fossils occur in the black clays upper reaches as one component in the fully terrestrial and endemic island-type fauna known as Ci Saat (de Vos et al., 1994; Larick et al., 2000). Above the black clay are fluvial deposits of the Bapang (Kabuh) Formation (Watanabe and Kadar, 1985). The Bapang comprises fine to very coarse tuffaceous sandstones with lenses of pumiceous conglomerate intercalated in silts and black silty clay. Cross bedding, parallel bedding and cut-and-fill structures are characteristic of the sandstone and conglomerates. The lower and middle reaches of the Bapang hold the majority of Homo erectus fossils. The Pohjajar (Notoporo) Formation lies above the Bapang, and is also fluvial, but with a higher proportion of fine-grained volcanic sediments. These occur as aerial tuffs, fluvially reworked ash fall, and two lahar-formed

diamictons, the Upper and Uppermost Lahars. Hominin fossils are not found in the upper reaches of the Bapang or in any part of the Pohjajar Formation. The Domes most recent sediments, a fluvial sequence consisting of alternating tuffaceous sandstone, conglomerate and fine-grained sediments, overlies the Pohjajar.

Methods Lahars fall within a range of volcaniclastic mass flow deposits that include large surges, far-traveled pyroclastic flows, concentrated grain fluid mixtures, and hyperconcentrated stream flows. A number of volcaniclastic mass flows have recently been studied in several parts of the world, including the Merapi cone located just west of the Sangiran Dome in Central Java. We focus on the LLU, recording sedimentary characteristics that have proven useful for interpreting modern and late Cenozoic volcaniclastic mass flow deposits at Merapi (Newhall et al., 2000, Lavigne et al., 2000), Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines (Rodolfo et al., 1998), and in the Cascade Range of the United States (Scott et al., 1995). We measured, photographed, and described all known LLU outcrops and sampled the LLU at 9 localities that represented the variability we observed (Figure 1). At 6 localities (Pondok, Pagarejo, Ngampan, Pablengan a, Bukuran, and Cengklik a), sediment samples were dry-sieved on-site to separate large-size (>1.5 cm diameter) and intermediate-size (0.5 to 1.5 cm diameter) clasts from the matrix (Zaim et al., 1999). Oriented block samples were cut from the upper and lower portions of the LLU at five localities (Pondok, Puren, Pablengan a, Pablengan b, and Cengklik b). Polished slabs and thin sections were prepared from these blocks. Pebble-size pumice clasts for bulk-sample hornblende 40Ar/39Ar analysis were carried out on samples from 6 localities (Pagarejo, Ngappon, Pablengan a, Pablengan b, Cengklik a and Cengklik b). 40Ar/39Ar analytical methods and age calculation details are provided in Table 3.

3. The Lower Lahar Unit The LLU is a matrix-supported diamicton with a medium to coarse volcanogenic sand matrix that supports rounded to angular polymictic clasts (Figure 3). Deposit thickness ranges from 6 m to about 19 m in the northern part of the outcrop ring, to 27 m at the southernmost exposure along the Cemoro River (Cengklik b, Figure 2). Matrix mean grain size is in the fine sand range, except at locality 1, where it is very fine sand. The LLU matrix grain-size distribution is fine-skewed in the southern part of the outcrop belt; it shifts to coarse to very coarse-skewed northward; and then to nearly symmetrical at the Puren and Pablengan b localities (Table 2 and Figure 4). The matrix is very poorly sorted with about 40-50% clay and silt (Table 2). Sand-sized angular volcanogenic crystal fragments of plagioclase, augite, magnetite, hornblende, and orthopyroxene make up about 15-30% of the matrix. The remaining matrix consists of sand-sized angular to subrounded mafic to felsic volcanic rock fragments and rounded siltstone and mudstone. Pebble- to cobble-sized clasts (4-64 mm) are primarily pyroxene and pyroxene-hornblende andesite with subordinate pumice, tuffaceous clay, sandstone, vesicular basalt, limestone, and altered volcanic rocks. These constitute from 15-5 weight percent of the LLU (Table 1). The andesite clasts range from gray, reddish gray, and brown, to shades of yellow and green (Figure 3), reflecting pre-transport weathering. Cobble-size clasts are most common in the lowest 2 m of the unit, but pebbles tend to be uniformly distributed through the LLU. Locally derived siltstone, mudstone and limestone clasts and mollusc shells are most abundant in the lower 1-2 m of the LLU. Clast content decreases slightly upward, except for large (3-8 m) undeformed blocks of siltstone and sandstone that occur in the upper few meters at several localities. Shells of the freshwater molluscs Corbicula sp., Sulcospira (Tereba) sp., Bellamya sp., and Unio sp. are found incorporated into the LLU mostly in the southwest outcrop area. A few shells of the marine mollusc Anadara sp. appear at the Pondok and Cengklik b sections (Figures 1 and 2). The freshwater fossils are often unbroken and undeformed (Figure 3b), while the marine fossils are

highly fragmented. Rare vertebrate fossil fragments have also been found in the LLU (Zaim et al., 2002). Long axes (C-axis) of clasts in the lowest 0.5-1 m of the LLU are orientated roughly parallel to the base of the unit, while clasts show no preferred orientation through the remainder of the LLU. With the exception of its lower 1-1.5 m, the LLU is massive. The lower part has weakly expressed graded bedding, and preferred orientation of fine and medium sand grains around some pebbles and cobbles (Figure 3a and c). In the lower portion of the LLU at Pablengan b, one end of a large (12 X 25 m) block of weakly cemented sandstone is deformed into a recumbent fold, indicating the presence of shearing conditions during transport. Taken together, sedimentary features expressed in the lower 1-1.5 m of the LLU are consistent with transport by laminar flow in a thin basal layer (Sparks, 1996). Above the basal zone the LLU is massive, matrix-supported and contains undeformed and unbroken fragile material such as freshwater mollusc shells. These properties indicate a lack of turbulence during transport (Johnson, 1970; Fisher and Schmincke, 1984), and suggest that the bulk of the LLU was transported to the Solo Basin as a nonturbulent plug riding on a basal zone undergoing laminar flow. The large, undeformed sandstone and siltstone blocks in the upper part of the LLU were probably suspended in the upper part of the plug by a combination of high density (buoyancy) and high strength of the matrix. Small, low-density materials, especially epiclastic pumice, that are preferentially oriented around the large blocks, may have accumulated in a thin water-rich zone surrounding the blocks as they floated along with the mass flow. The LLUs basal contact with the Puren Formation ranges from erosive to nonerosive, and in some instances is fluted. Flute amplitudes range from 5-10 cm and wavelengths from 1.5-2 m. Minor deformation, usually compaction, is present in the upper few centimeters of the Puren Formation. These features indicate that, at least locally, deep scouring or significant deformation of the sea floor did not take place during the mass flow event that emplaced the LLU.

Two lines of evidence shed light on the nature of the LLU upper surface following deposition. First, the black clay/LLU contact is conformable. Second, LLU surface sediments are neither winnowed nor sorted. Both observations indicate that the LLU surface sediments were either laid down below wave base, or that the receiving water body was not subject to waves or currents. In total, the LLU shows an absence of bedding, poor sorting and few indications of turbulence prior to deposition of short-traveled clasts. This suite of features indicates that the mass flow was probably cohesive. Unlike the many historic lahars at nearby Merapi volcano (Newhall et al., 2000), the flow that deposited the LLU did not transform into a muddy streamflow or banjir as it moved away from the volcanic edifice where it was initiated, but instead remained cohesive as it passed into shallow marine environments in the Sangiran area. Considering the distance to the nearest source volcanoes (>20 km), the lahar that deposited the LLU was a very large magnitude event or closely spaced sequence of events. The small area of outcrop represented by the Sangiran Dome (ca. 2.25 km2) precludes a detailed discussion of lateral variations in the rheology of the mass flow that deposited the LLU. In summary, the LLU is heterolithologic and contains clasts of altered and unaltered andesites, vesicular basalt, pumice, sandstone and mudstone. The low percentage of pumice clasts, absence of evidence such as bread crusts for rapidly cooled clasts, and the variety of andesites in various stages of weathering all suggest that the mass flow from which the LLU was deposited was not associated with an eruption. Many of the pebble and cobble size clasts are moderately rounded to well rounded and appear to have been derived from a relatively high-energy fluvial environment such as a mountain stream. These clasts indicate that the mass flow originated along the flanks of a stratovolcano at some distance from the Sangiran area. The abundance of silicic clasts may suggest that the lahar originated in the silica-rich volcanic area southeast of the Sangiran dome rather than in the lower silica content volcanic area to the south and southwest (Ninkovich et al., 1982). This interpretation is subject to debate however, since there is a great variation in the silica content of

lavas in Central Java where fragments of the pre-Cenozoic oceanic trench crop out (Neuman van Padang, 1951; Whiteford, 1975).

4. Geochronology Two 40Ar/39Ar step-heating procedures are currently used to date the volcaniclastics of the Sangiran Dome. In France, the common procedure analyzes single hornblende grains derived from fine-grained matrix (Falgures, 1998; Falgures et al., 1998; Smah et al., 2000). In the United States, the common procedure isolates small bulk hornblende samples from epiclastic pumice (Swisher, 1997; Swisher et al., 1994; Swisher and Curtis, 1998; Widiasmoro, 1998; Swisher, 1999, Larick et al., 2001). The two methods have been applied throughout the dome sedimentary sequence with consistently divergent results (Larick et al., 2000). The divergence also holds for published dates from the LLU. Thus 40Ar/39Ar analysis of a lahar matrix hornblende grain from Cengklik a produced an age of 1.77 0.08 Ma; hornblende grain from Pablengan a yielded 1.66 0.04 Ma (Smah et al., 2000). Alternatively, one bulk sample 40Ar/39Ar analysis for the LLU yielded a plateau age of 2.08 Ma (Swisher, 1999). In attempting to resolve the discrepancy, Smah et al. (2000) refer to a pumice hornblende bulk sample 40Ar/39Ar analysis of questionable provenance. Swisher et al. (1994) associated a bulk sample 40Ar/39Ar age of 1.66 0.04 Ma with an important Homo erectus fossil findspot stratigraphically above the LLU in the Lower Pucangan formation (c.f. Sangiran Formation; Swisher et al., 1994: 1120). Smah et al. (2000) observe that Swisher et al.s determination matches the single grain 40Ar/39Ar age from the LLU at Pablengan a. They conclude that Swisher et al. mistakenly sampled the LLU. This explanation, nevertheless, does not cover the bulk sample
40

Ar/39Ar age of 2.08 Ma (Swisher 1999). We continue to use the laser step-heating age spectrum method on small bulk samples of

pumice hornblende. Dome pumice epiclasts have a relatively uniform mineralogy throughout the

sedimentary sequence, suggesting that they erupted from a single volcanic center (Larick et al., 2001). LLU pumice clasts generally show 5-15 % plagioclase, 2-5 % hornblende, 1-2 % opaque oxides, 0-1 % augite, and < 1 % apatite phenocrysts. Pumice hornblende is usually pleochroic olive green or brown-green to yellow, although some is dark red-brown due to oxidation. Crystals in some pumice were apparently shattered by eruption. We analyzed hornblende separates from six pumice lenses within the LLU (Tables 3, 4 and 5). Age spectrum diagrams for each sample are shown in Figures 5 and 6. For samples LL-1 (Cengklik a), LL-2 (Ngampon) and LL01-4 (Cengklik b), 3 to 4 replicate runs were preformed to evaluate sample heterogeneity (Tables 4, 5; Figs. 5a-f, 6a-d). Inspection of the amphibole separates under a a binocular microscope reveals the hornblendes to be poikiolic with significant plagioclase inclusions and also distinct color populations in some instances. Sample LL-1 provided 3 replicate analyses of a green hornblende. LL-2 gave 2 replicates of a green amphibole and one of a brown hornblende. Samples LL-3 and LL-4 each yielded one hornblende (LL-3 green, LL-4 brown). Hornblendes from LL01-4 and LL01-9 were very dark green to black. The age spectra show varying degrees of complexity and replicate runs do not always produce consistent apparent ages (Figs. 5, 6; Table 5). Most spectra record a flat segment that contains between 2 to 6 steps and 50 to 100% of the 39Ar released. Plateau ages range between 1.880.02 Ma (LL-2-a Ngampon)) to 2.750.08 Ma (LL-4-a Cengklik b). Total gas ages are typically older than plateau ages as the initial steps of the spectra record anomalously older apparent ages relative to the plateau segments (Table 4). As demonstrated by LL-1 and LL01-4, replicate plateau ages do not agree at the 2 sigma error level (Table 5) and indicate scatter above what can be explained by analytical error alone. K/Ca spectra are generally flat except for initial steps that record slightly higher values compared to the majority of the sample (Figs. 5, 6; Table 4). Radiogenic yields are typically low for initial steps, but rise to values as high as about 80% for the high temperature heating steps (Table 4; Figs. 5, 6). These high radiogenic yields contribute to age results that are quite precise.

As the hornblende separates are heterogeneous in mineralogy and age, the plateau age spread must be interpreted with caution. Considering that mixed age populations is the mostly likely cause for that lack of replicate analysis reproducibility, we suggest that the youngest plateau ages probably reflect a maximum age for the deposit. Thus the analytically indistinguishable plateau ages of 1.880.02 and 1.920.03 Ma from LL-2-a and LL-2-b (Ngampon), respectively (Figs. 5a, 5b) allow the interpretation that the LLU is not older than 1.900.02 Ma. It is probable that older apparent ages result from pumice that was recycled from older tephra sequences and their overall flat age spectra represents homogenization of the age populations during the step-heating of the bulk samples. The spread in apparent plateau ages does not appear to be caused by excess argon contamination. Isochron analysis was conducted on all of the samples and does not reveal apparent ages that are significantly different than the plateau ages. The isochron plots are not provided because they suffer from too few data points for each individual sample, the isochron arrays can be visualized by inspection of the radiogenic yield and age spectra plots (note that indication of excess argon which manifests as a correlation between old apparent age and low apparent radiogenic yields does not exist) and finally isochron analysis did not supplant the plateau ages in the overall interpretation of the LLU age. The brown hornblende extracted from LL-2-c yielded an overall saddle-shaped age spectrum with a minimum age of 1.12 Ma (Fig. 5f). It was noted during mineral separation that this brown amphibole appeared altered relative to the other amphibole separates and had significant matrix material adhering to the crystals. A possible explanation for the apparent young age is that the matrix material has experienced argon loss and is degassing during the intermediate part of the age spectrum. Another possibility is that the hornblende has experienced argon loss during alteration or oxidation. These explanations are not entirely satisfactory, however based on all other data this sample must be considered anomalous and inaccurate.

In summary, six pumice lenses within the LLU yielded hornblende variable with respect to color and plagioclase inclusions. While the age spectra showed varying degrees of complexity and the replicate runs did not always produce consistent apparent ages, most recorded a flat segment that contained between 2 to 6 steps and 50 to 100% of the 39Ar released. Plateau ages ranged between 1.880.02 to 2.750.08 Ma. As the spread in apparent plateau ages seems not to result from excess argon contamination, the older apparent ages probably indicate pumice recycled from older tephra sequences. We therefore suggest that averaging the two youngest plateau ages provides a maximum age of 1.900.02 Ma for the entire deposit. The LLU pumice hornblende 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages are consistent with those reported for the Bapang Formation, which overlies the black clay. The 40Ar/39Ar plateau age for the lowest Bapang pumice hornblende is 1.510.08 Ma (Larick et al., 2001). This oldest Bapang age and the estimated maximum LLU age (1.900.02 Ma) provide a chronological bracket for the intervening Sangiran Formation black clay. These data suggest that the black clay accumulated in a period approaching 400,000 years. Homo erectus appeared in the Sangiran dome toward the end of this period.

5. Discussion A lahar is a rapidly flowing mixture of rock debris and water (other than normal stream flow) from a volcano. As an event, a lahar results from one or more discrete processes, such as debris flow and hyperconcentrated stream flow. The basal contact of laharic sediments with underlying deposits can be erosive or nonerosive, depending on local topography, nature of the debris flow, and sediment characteristics (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Lavigne et al., 2000; Rodolfo et al., 1998). Stratigraphical, sedimentological, and lithic characteristics of the LLU are consistent with its deposition by a lahar or a sequence of lahars closely spaced in time. The sedimentology of the LLU may be compared with a number of recently studied mass flow volcanic deposits. For example, the LLUs primary features are apparent sedimentary cohesiveness

throughout most of the unit and a basal zone transported by laminar flow. Johnson (1970) and Hampton (1972) argue that in some conditions, lahar matrix is strong enough to produce a rigid plug in which shear stress is below the yield threshold throughout. Such a plug can ride on a basal zone of laminar flow within which the shear stress is greater than the yield threshold. Consequently, clast rotation, abrasion, and deformation are minimized in the plug and fragile materials, such as shells may be transported without much damage. The well-preserved mollusc shells in the LLU indicate this kind of sediment cohesiveness during the LLU event. Recently, Iverson and Vallance (2001) argued that concentrated grain fluid mixtures, such as lahars, do not behave as simple materials with fixed rheologies. They argue that the rheology of these materials evolves as mixture agitation, grain-concentration and fluid-pressure change during the initiation, transit and deposition of the flow. LLU grain size and sorting characteristics are very similar to cohesive debris flows at Cascade volcanoes. At Cascade, cohesive debris flows often begin as debris avalanches, transform quickly to debris flows, and remain as such to their termini (Scott et al., 1995). The relatively small outcrop area and an absence of subsurface information on the LLU beyond the Sangiran Dome do not allow us at this time to investigate the nature of lateral variations in rheology of the flow(s) that emplaced the LLU. Heterolithologic lahars are most often generated by collapse of crater walls or avalanching of rain-soaked debris covering steep volcanic slopes (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984). Historic lahars at southeastern Asia volcanoes, such as Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines (Rodolfo et al., 1998) and at the neighboring Merapi volcano in Central Java (Lavigne et al., 2000), are triggered primarily by intense rainfall during the rainy season. More frequent and larger magnitude lahars occur during and immediately following eruptive phases of these volcanoes, when abundant loose volcanic materials are present high on the volcano flanks. Large surge deposits, as well as very large and far-traveled pyroclastic flows and lahars are associated with massive collapse of statovolcanoes (for example, at Mount St. Helens). At

Cascade volcanoes, large cohesive debris flows are associated primarily with older volcanic edifices, where hydrothermal alteration is intense (Scott et al., 1995). The LLUs sedimentary cohesiveness implicates debris flow from a relatively old volcanic edifice with significant hydrothermal alteration. As the LLU event was apparently not associated with eruption, it probably was generated by sector collapse of a large stratovolcano or volcanic complex. Based on the Merapi mass flows, Newhall et al. (2000) offer Holocene examples of laharinduced landscape transformations, and Scott et al. (1995) illustrate similar effects at Mount Rainier. Besides burying preexisting topography, lahars often block valleys and impound lakes in traversed drainages. The LLUs effect on the local landscape must have included such effects in terrestrial environments up gradient of the shallow marine environment present in the Sangiran area at the time of deposition. The LLU event did not create terrestrial surfaces as it flowed into a nearshore marine or lagoonal environment in the Sangiran area. Nevertheless, it did reduce local water depth by as much as 20 meters. It is probably during subsequent early Pleistocene glacioeustatic sea level decreases that LLU-derived shallow aquatic environments emerged as fertile land surfaces (Ninkovich et al., 1982). As land bridges then connected southern Sunda with mainland Southeast Asia, Homo erectus arrived to the Solo Basin to find a variety of habitable environments. In all archaeological assemblages recovered within the Dome, lahar-derived andesite pebbles and cobbles outcrops dominate the raw material menu. Andesite lahar clasts are naturally oriented towards the production of bolas, which are common and opportunistic tools. More complex tools appearing on andesite cobbles include large retouched flakes and cleavers (Smah et al., 1999). Clasts of andesite are present in the LLU, but at the time of the first Homo erectus immigration into the Sangiran area the LLU was buried by many meters of Sangiran Formation paludal deposits and thus was not available as a local source of raw material for Homo erectus lithic technology. Only after the commencement of Bapang formation coarse fluvial deposition about 1.5 Ma was a local source of lithic material present in the Sangiran area.

6. Conclusions The LLUs stratigraphic and lithological characteristics suggest deposition as a heterolithological yet cohesive debris flow. The debris flow was a lahar, or series of closely spaced lahars, that was probably triggered by sector collapse of a relatively old volcanic edifice located east or southeast of the Sangiran area.
40

Ar/39Ar pumice hornblende ages place the event as early as 1.90 Ma. This age

postdates glacioeustatic sea level lowering caused by the first major continental glaciation of the late Pliocene, but predates the more frequent glacial episodes of the early Pleistocene. The LLU event significantly decreased the depth of shallow near-shore environments in the Sangiran area and set the stage for full local terrestrial emergence during early Pleistocene glacial episodes. The evolution of post-LLU estuarine and paludal environments in the Sangiran area produced terrestrial settings that attracted Homo erectus to southern Sunda generally and the Solo Basin in particular.

Acknowledgements The Institute of Technology Bandung and the University of Iowa (UI) collaborated in this research, with assistance from the Indonesian Geological Research and Development Centre and the National Archaeological Research Centre. The Indonesian Institute of Sciences issued research permits 7450/V3/KS/1998, 3174/V3/KS/1999 and 4301/1.3/KS/2001. Funding has been provided by the University of Iowa Center for Global and Regional Environmental Research, the University of Iowa Central Investment Fund for Research Enhancement, the University of Iowa Office of the Vice-President for Research and the Office of the Dean of the College of Liberal Arts, and the Human Evolution Research Fund at the University of Iowa Foundation. Johan Arif and Sujatmiko aided in fieldwork. Computer graphics and other digital images were produced by Rubn Uribe and Shirley Taylor, and updated by K. Lindsay Eaves-Johnson. K. Lindsay Eaves-Johnson proofread and copy-edited the manuscript.

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Figure Captions Figure 1. Location of the Sangiran Dome in Central Java, Indonesia. Study localities and the location of mud volcanoes in the Domes interior are shown on the left.

Figure 2. Logs of selected LLU stratigraphic sections in the Sangiran Dome. The sections depicted cover the range of observed thickness of the LLU in its outcrop belt. The location of sample blocks that were made into polished slabs is indicated.

Figure 3. Images of selected polished slabs of the LLU. Refer to the text for a discussion of features indicated on the images. Images were made by scanning polished slabs on a flat bed scanner.

Figure 4. Cumulative weight percent diagrams and histograms depicting grain-size distribution of the LLU matrix. Grain-size distribution was determined by sieving LLU samples in the field. The sample localities are shown on Figure 1. Grain-size statistics are given in Table 2.

Figure 5. Age spectra, K/Ca and radiogenic yield diagrams for hornblende samples LL-1 (a-c) and LL-2 (d-f). Replicate analysis of LL-1 do not yield consistent results and suggest multiple age populations within the bulk mineral separates. LL-2-a and LL-2-b combine to provide a maximum age of 1.900.02 Ma for the LLU. LL-2-c yields an anomalously young apparent age and is considered inaccurate.

Figure 6. Age spectra, K/Ca and radiogenic yield diagrams for LL01-4 (a-d), LL-3-a (e), LL-4-a, (f) and LL01-9 (g). Like LL-1, LL01-4 has replicate ages that do not agree at 2 sigma and indicate a heterogeneous age population of hornblende crystals. All apparent ages are interpreted as

maximum emplacement ages for the LLU.

Table 1. Grain-size classes of the LLU, including the coarse fraction, from numbered localities shown on Figure 1. _________________________________________________________________________ SITE FRACTION DIAMETER (mm) % _________________________________________________________________________
Pagarejo Pebble Very Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Medium Sand Fine Sand Very Fine Sand Mud Pebble Very Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Medium Sand Fine Sand Very Fine Sand Mud Pebble Very Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Medium Sand Fine Sand Very Fine Sand Mud Pebble Very Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Medium Sand Fine Sand Very Fine Sand Mud Pebble Very Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Medium Sand Fine Sand Very Fine Sand Mud Pebble Very Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Medium Sand Fine Sand Very Fine Sand Mud >2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 - 0.5 0.50 - 0.25 0.25 - 0.12 0.12 - 0.06 <0.06 >2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 - 0.5 0.50 - 0.25 0.25 - 0.12 0.12 - 0.06 <0.06 >2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 - 0.5 0.50 - 0.25 0.25 - 0.12 0.12 - 0.06 <0.06 >2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 - 0.5 0.50 - 0.25 0.25 - 0.12 0.12 - 0.06 <0.06. >2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 - 0.5 0.50 - 0.25 0.25 - 0.12 0.12 - 0.06 <0.06 >2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 - 0.5 0.50 - 0.25 0.25 - 0.12 0.12 - 0.06 <0.06 2.46 4.17 9.12 14.57 14.96 10.19 44.53 3.80 8.88 11.92 15.54 15.82 10.10 33.94 11.73 4.33 8.16 12.67 14.73 10.36 38.02 12.50 7.00 10.29 14.06 13.70 9.29 33.16 5.21 6.27 11.27 17.30 16.98 10.29 32.68 9.06 6.70 10.73 14.76 14.47 9.20 35.08

Pondok

Ngampan

Cengklik a

Bukuran

Pablengan a

_________________________________________________________________________

Table 2. Grain-size statistics for the LLU matrix. ____________________________________________________________________________________ MEAN GRAIN SIZE SORTING SKEWNESS KURTOSIS (Mz) (S) (Sk) (Kg) ____________________________________________________________________________________ Pagarejo Pondok Ngampan Cengklik a Bukuran Pablengan a 3.4 phi very fine sand 2.6 phi fine sand 2.8 phi fine sand 2.4phi fine sand 2.7 phi fine sand 2.7 phi fine sand 2.1 phi very poor 2.1 phi very poor 2.3 phi very poor 2.3 phi very poor 2.2 phi very poor 2.3 phi very poor -0.06 phi -0.02 phi +0.003 phi +0.49 phi +0.66 phi +0.39 phi 1.56 phi very leptokurtic 1.40 phi leptokurtic 1.37 phi leptokurtic 1.27 phi leptokurtic 1.25 phi leptokunic 1.18 phi leptokurtic SITE

____________________________________________________________________________________

Table 3. 40Ar/39Ar analytical methods and age calculation procedures for the dated pumice hornblendes. Sample preparation and irradiation: Mineral separates obtained by standard magnetic, heavy liquid and hand-picking techniques. Samples irradiated for 1 (NM-132) or 2 hours (NM-155) in the D-3 position of the Texas A&M reactor along with neutron flux monitor Fish Canyon Tuff sanidine, (FC-1) with an assigned age of 27.84 Ma (Deino and Potts, 1990), relative to Mmhb-1 at 520.4 Ma (Samson and Alexander, 1987). Instrumentation: Mass Analyzer Products 215-50 mass spectrometer on line with automated all-metal extraction system. 50 W CO2 laser furnace: Samples analyzed by step-heating with defocused laser beam, each step 3 minutes. Reactive gases removed during a 20 minute reaction with 2 SAES GP-50 getters, 1 operated at ~450C and 1 at 20C. Gas also exposed to a W filament operated at ~2000C and a cold finger operated at -140C. Analytical parameters: Electron multiplier sensitivity averaged 0.70 or 1.25x10-16 moles/pA for NM-132 and NM-155 samples, respectively. Total laser system blanks plus backgrounds were assigned to be: 930, 3.4, 1.3, 3.3, 5.7 x 10-18 moles at masses 40, 39, 38, 37, and 36, respectively. J-factors determined to a precision of 0.1% by CO2 laser-fusion of 4 single crystals from each of 6 radial positions around the irradiation tray. Correction factors for interfering nuclear reactions were determined using Kglass and CaF2 and are as follows: (40Ar/39Ar)K = 0.00020.0003; (36Ar/37Ar)Ca = 0.0002800.000005; and (39Ar/37Ar)Ca = 0.000720.00002. Age calculations: Total gas ages and errors calculated by isotopic recombination of gas derived from all heating steps. Plateau ages calculated for the indicated steps by weighting each step by the inverse of the variance. Plateau age errors calculated using the method of (Taylor, 1982). MSWD values are calculated for each plateau ages. If the MSWD is above 1, the plateau age error is multiplied by the square root of the MSWD. Decay constants and isotopic abundances after Steiger and Jger (1977). All errors reported at 1.

Table 4. 40Ar/39Ar isotopic data for the laser step-heated bulk hornblende samples.

Excel table here

Table 5. Compilation of Lower Lahar dating results.

Locality

Sample

Weight (mg)

Plateau age ( 1 Ma) 2.300.02 2.050.02 2.340.05 1.880.02 1.920.03 2.620.16 2.750.08 2.600.12 2.390.08 2.230.06 2.540.06 2.350.15

Plateau MSWD 1.402.80 3.76 1.95 2.05

# Steps on plateau 2 (E-F) 4 (C-F) 4 (C-F) 4 (C-F) 3 (C-E)

%39Ar in plateau 52.5 97.4 94.2 96.9 82.5

Total gas age ( 1 Ma) 3.320.02 2.230.03 2.520.04 2.000.02 2.120.03 2.180.07

Cengklik a

LL-1-a (green) LL-1-b (green) LL-1-c (green) LL-2-a (green) LL-2-b (green) LL-2-c (brown) LL-3-a (green) LL-4-a (brown) LL01-4-a (black) LL01-4-b (black) LL01-4-c (black) LL01-4-d (black) LL01-9-a (black)

14.7 15.92 10.52 18.94 13.75 8.49 4.99 9.69 15.50 14.35 14.98 14.60 13.37

Ngampon

Pagerejo Pablengan a Cengklik b

1.20 6.42 2.99 1.80 0.33 0.07 1.03

3 (A-C) 4 (B-E) 4 (C-F) 5 (B-F) 6 (A-F) 6 (A-F) 6 (A-F)

79.1 98.3 61.7 94.6 100 100 100

3.200.20 2.840.04 2.750.10 2.450.07 2.250.08 2.540.06 2.410.12

Pablengan b