SEE 3533

COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES
Chapter II – Amplitude Modulation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation
 1.0 Introduction
• What is modulation?
– The message itself is a signal e.g. an audio signal
– A signal transformation to a format suitable for transmission
through a chosen medium
– Often involves another signal i.e. carrier
• The message (modulating signal) modulates the carrier to
produce the transmitted signal (modulated signal)

• Modulation types:
– CW modulation
• The carrier is a sinusoid.
• This is the traditional mode for all-analogue communications
• Principal subclasses include AM, Angle Modulation (FM, PM)
– Pulse modulation
• The carrier is a pulse train.
• This is a mode that allows for digital communications
2
 1.1 Benefits of Modulation
• Modulation can shift the spectral content of a message signal into a
band which is better suited to the channel
– Antennas only efficiently radiate and admit signals at chosen frequencies
– Low frequency -> longer antenna length..higher frquency -> shorter
– Hence, to transmit and receive, say, voice, by radio we need to shift the
voice signal to a much higher frequency band.

• Modulation permits the use of multiplexing

– Multiplexing means allowing simultaneous communication by multiple
users on the same channel.
– For instance, the radio frequency spectrum must be shared and
modulation allows users to separate themselves into bands

• Modulation can provide some control over noise/interference

– frequency modulation (FM) permits a tradeoff between bandwidth and
noise

3
 2.0 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Objective:

• To learn AM modulation and demodulation techniques.

• To learn AM generation and detection.

AM modulation techniques will be studied:

1) Double Side Band Full Carrier (DSBFC)

– 2 sidebands and a carrier
2) Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)
– Remove the carrier
3) Single Side Band (SSB)
– One side band and a carrier
4) Single Side Band Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC)
– Only one side band
5) Vestigial Side Band (VSB) 4
– Compromise between DSB and SSB Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.1 Introduction
 Baseband: is a range of frequency signal to be transmitted. eg:
Audio (0 - 4 kHz), Video (0 - 6 MHz).

 Baseband Communication
 Transmission without frequency shifting.
 Transmission through twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and
fiber optic cable.
 Significant power for whole range of frequencies.
 Not suitable for radio/microwave and satellite communication.

 Carrier Communication
 Use modulation technique to shift the frequency.
 Change the carrier signal characteristics (amplitude, frequency
and phase) following the modulating signal amplitude.
 Suitable for radio/microwave and satellite communication. 5
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.2 DSB-FC – Full AM
• AM modulation is a fundamental modulation process in
communication system.
• Carrier frequency signal >> than modulating frequency signal.
=> fc >> fm.
• Modulator is used to generate AM signal, amDSB-FC(t). It is shown
in the block diagram below.

vm(t) AM Modulator v AM (t ) = ( Ec + vm (t ) ) cos ωc t

Modulating
vc(t) AM modulated signal
signal
Carrier signal

6
Pemodulatan Amplitu
• Let :
vm (t ) = Em cos ωmt and vc (t ) = Ec cos ωc t
 Therefore, amDSBFC signal can be expressed:

v AM (t ) = ( Ec + vm ( t ) ) cos ωc t
v AM (t ) = ( Ec + Em cos ωmt ) cos ωc t
 Given the modulation index : Em
m=
Ec
 amDSBFC can be deduced to:
v AM (t ) = Ec (1 + m cos ωmt ) cos ωc t
 From trigonometry identities:
1 1
cos( A) cos( B ) = cos( A + B ) + cos( A − B )
2 2
 Therefore:
v AM (t ) = Ec cos ω c t + mEc cos ω c t cos ω m t
mEc mEc
= Ec cos ω c t + cos( ω c + ω m ) t + cos( ω c − ω m ) t
2 2 7
 • Signal frequency spectrum ; amDSBFC
mEc
v AM (t ) = Ec cos ωc t + ( cos( ωc + ωm )t + cos( ωc − ωm ) t )
2

Carrier signal Sidebands signal

Amplitud (V )
Carrier band
Modulating band
BW = 2 f m
Ec
Em
mEc Em mEc Em
= =
2 2 2 2

0 ωm ωc − ω m ωc ωc + ω m ω (rads −1 )
Jalur Sisi Bawah Jalur Sisi Atas
LSB USB

8
Pemodulatan Amplitu
The modulation index is given by : Em
m=
Ec
Modulation indices range : ( 0 ≤ m ≤ 1)
100% modulation

m = 1, ( Em = Ec )

m < 1, ( Em < Ec )

m > 1, ( Em > Ec )

9
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 Phase change

• The phase change for carrier signal when over-modulation

occurs and must be avoided.
• Modulation depth greater than 100% must be
avoided, ( m > 1 > 100%)

10
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.2.2 Modulation Index, m
Sampul + = Ec (1+ m cos ωmt )
V + max
Em
+ Ec V max p − p
Em
V + min

V − min V min p − p
Em
− Ec
Em
−
V max
Sampul − = − Ec (1+ m cos ωmt )
V + max − V + min V − max − V − min V max p − p − V min p − p
m= + = or m=
V max + V + min V − max + V − min V max p − p + V min p − p

where V + max = Ec + Em dan V + min = Ec − Em

( Ec + E m ) − ( E c − E m )
Therefore m =
( E c + E m ) + ( Ec − E m )
Em
= 11
Ec
Pemodulatan Amplitu
• m using trapezoid diagram

a−b
a b m=
a+b

• m could be obtained from the amplitudes of sidebands

and carrier signals:
sideband ' s amplitude mEc / 2 m
= =
carrier ' s amplitude Ec 2

12
 Example 2.1
An AM modulated signal is generated using signal (
vs ( t ) = 3 cos 2πx103 t )
modulating the carrier signal v c ( t ) = 10 cos( 2πx10 )t . Determine :
6

i) The modulation index, m

ii) The upper side band, lower side band and bandwitdh
iii) The ratio between sideband’s and carrier amplitudes
iv) The maximum and minimum peak-to-peak voltages of the modulated signal

Solution:
E 3 ii) The upper side band (fUSB)= 106 + 103 = 1001 kHz
i) m= s = = 0.3
E c 10 The lower side band (fLSB)= 106 – 103 = 999 kHz

Bandwidth= 2fs = fUSB - fLSB = 2 kHz

iii) mEc/2 = 1.5 Emax = 2( Ec + Es ) = 26Volt

iv)
Ratio = 1.5/10= 0.15 Emin = 2( Ec − Es ) = 14Volt
13
 Example 2.2
:An AM modulated signal is given as :

v AM ( t ) = 100 cos(ωc + ωa )t + 500 cos ωc t + 100 cos(ωc − ωa )t

Where the carrier signal before modulation is equal to 500 cos ωc t
Get the : (i) Envelope equation
(ii) Message signal
(iii) Modulation Percentage
(iv) Spectrum of the modulated signal
Solution:
(i) v AM ( t ) = 500 cos ωc t +100 cos(ωc + ωa )t +100 cos(ωc − ωa )t
= 500 cos ωc t + 200 cos ωc t cos ωa t
= ( 500 + 200 cos ωa t ) cos ωc t 500
∴Envelope equation = ( 500 + 200 cos ωa t ) (iv)

(ii) v s ( t ) = 200 cos ω a t 100 100

(iii) %m = 200/500 x 100 = 40% fc - f a fc f c+ f a 14

 Example 2.3 :
The peak-to-peak amplitudes of a trapezoid diagram for an AM
modulated are 15 and 9 Volts. The message signal’s frequency is at
1.5 kHz while the carrier’s frequency is equal to 100 kHz. Obtain the
following:
(i) Mathematical equations for the message, carrier and modulated
signals
(ii) Modulation index
(iii) Spectrum of the modulated signal with related amplitudes
(iv) Modulated signal in time domain
Solution:

2( Ec + Em ) = 15, 2( Ec − Em ) = 9
(i) 4 Ec = 24, Ec = 6, Em = 1.5
vm (t ) = 1.5 cos 2π (1.5 ×103 )t
vc (t ) = 6 cos 2π (100 ×103 )t
v AM (t ) = (6 +1.5 cos 2π (1.5 ×103 )t ) cos 2π (100 ×103 )t

(ii) m = 1.5/6 = (15-9)/ (15+9) = 0.25 = 25% 15

Solution:
6
(iii)

0.75 0.75

98.5k 100k 101.5k

(iv) V(t)

fc=100 kHz
7.5

4.5
t

-4.5

-7.5

16
 2.2.3 Power, AM
Amplitud (V )
Ec
mEc mEc
2 2
where
mEc Em
=
2 2

0 ωc − ω m ωc ωc + ω m ω (rads −1 )
 In the modulation process signal is converted to electrical
signal in terms of current or voltage.
 The expression of AM signal components can be represented
as follows:

mEc mEc
v AM (t ) = Ec cos ω c t + cos( ω c − ω m ) t + cos( ω c + ω m ) t
2 2
Carrier Signal LSB Signal USB Signal
17
Vc VLSB VUSB Pemodulatan Amplitu
 PT = Pc + PLSB + PUSB where Ec2
Pc =
Vc2rms 2
VLSB 2
VUSB 2R
= + rms
+ rms
m 2 Pc
R R R and PLSB = PUSB =
2 2 2 4
 Ec   mEc   mEc 
      Therefore PSB = PLSB + PUSB
=  2 2 2 2 2
+ + m 2 Pc m 2 Pc
R R R = +
4 4
Ec2 m 2 Ec2 m 2 Ec2
= + + =
m 2 Pc
2R 8R 8R 2

PT = Pc + PSB
Therefore the relationship between
the total power transmitted, PT and m 2 Pc
the carrier signal power, Pc is as = Pc +
2
follows:
 m2 
= Pc 
1 + 2 

  18
Pemodulatan Amplitu
  m2 
PT = PAM = Pc 1 +  Watt
 2 

Transmission efficiency, η for AM:

PSB
η= ×100%
PT
where PSB is the total sidebands signal power that contains information

m 2 Pc
2 2
2 m m
η= = =
 m  2
 m  2 + m2
2
Pc 1 +  21 + 
 2   2 

If m = 1 (100% modulation), the average power, PSB = 50% Pc= Pc/2

It shows that the PSB is dependent on m.
19
 2
From: η =
m
2 + m2

The transmission efficiency with m = 1 is only 33.33% .

Therefore we can conclude that the transmitted power signal is mostly
carrier power signal contributing of 66.67% from the total AM signal.
Whereas signal contains information in the LSB and USB transmitted is
33.33% from the total AM signal.

In practice, information signal is complex or non periodic signal,

eg: music, voice, image and etc. Its consists of many frequencies and
harmonics components.
Its can be represented:

vm (t ) = Em1 cos ωm1t + Em 2 cos ωm 2t +......

where
ωm1 = 2π f m1 ; ωm 2 = 2πf m 2 ..... 20
Therefore total modulated power:

PAM = Pc 1 + ( m12 + m22 + m32 + ...) 

 1 
 2 
 1 2 
= Pc 1 + meff
2
 where m eff = ( m1
2
+ m2
2
+ m3
2
+ ...)1/ 2

 
E E E
and m1 = m1 , m2 = m 2 , m3 = m 3 ,.....
Ec Ec Ec

21
Summary
(V)
Amplitude
Ec

mEc mEc
2 2 where
mEc Em
=
2 2

0 ωc − ωm ωc ωc + ωm ω (rads −1 )

Each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal and is a

mirror image of the other.
Amplitude modulation is inefficient in terms of power usage and much of it is
wasted. (66.67%)
At least two-thirds of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal, which
carries no useful information
The remaining power is split between two identical sidebands, though only
one of these is needed since they contain identical information.
22
Example 2.4 :
An AM station transmits power at 10 kW when the modulation percentage is 60%.
Get the average power of the carrier signal.
Penyelesaian: PAM 10
 m2  Pc = = = 8.47 kW
PAM = Pc 1 +  ;  m  2
( 0.6) 2

 2  1 +  1+
 2  2

Example 2.5 :
The root-mean-square (rms) current of an antenna for an AM station is 8 A when only
the carrier signal is transmitted. However, it is increased to 8.93 A when being
modulated with a sinusoidal signal. Calculate the modulation percentage.

Penyelesaian Carrier rms current, Ic = 8 A

:
Modulated Signal rms current, I =8.93 A
I
Ie = = 1.12
Ic
( ) ( )
∴ m = 2 I e2 − 1 = 2 1.12 2 − 1 = 0.7 or 70% 23
Example 2.6 :
From Example 2.5, calculate the antenna current for the modulated signal when the
modulation percentage is changed to 80%.

Penyelesaian :

m2 0.82
I = Ic 1+ = 8 1+ = 9.19 A
2 2

24
 2.3 DSBSC
• To increase transmitter efficiency, the carrier can be
removed (suppressed) from the AM signal.

• This produces a reduced-carrier transmission or

double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC) signal.

• A suppressed carrier amplitude modulation scheme

is three times more power efficient than traditional
DSBFC.

vm(t) DSBSC Modulator vDSBSC (t ) = vm (t ) cos ωc t

vc(t)

25
Pemodulatan Amplitu
Let :
∴ vm (t ) = Em cos ωmt

Therefore vDSBSC becomes :

vDSBSC (t ) = Em cos ωmt cos ωc t

From trigonometry identity :

1 1
cos( A) cos( B ) = cos( A + B ) + cos( A − B )
2 2
Hence :
vDSBSC (t ) = Em cos ωc t cos ωmt
Em Em
= cos( ωc − ωm ) t + cos( ωc + ωm ) t
2 2

26
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 • Frequency spectrum signal AMDSBSC
Em Em
vDSBSC (t ) = cos(ωc −ωm )t + cos(ωc + ωm )t
2 2

Sidebands signal
Amplitude(V )
Modulating band

Em Em Em
2 2

0 ωm ωc − ωm ωc ω c + ω m ω(rads −1 )
LSB USB

27
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.3.1.1 Power, AMDSBSC
Amplitud (V )
Em Em
2 2

0 ωc − ω m ωc ωc + ω m ω (rads −1 )
 Components representation for AMDSBSC signal:

Em E
amDSBSC (t ) = cos( ωc − ωm ) t + m cos( ωc + ωm ) t
2 2

LSB USB
VLSB VUSB
28
Pemodulatan Amplitu
PT = PLSB + PUSB
2 2
In DSBSC, all the power
V LSBrms V
USBrms transmitted is sidebands
= + power.
R R
2 2
 Em   Em  If R = 1 ohm.
   
=
2 2
+
2 2 2
Em
R R PT =
4
Em2 Em2 PT =PSB
= +
8R 8R
Em2
= Therefore the efficiency, η = 100%
4R

29
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.3.2 SSB
• Both in AMDSBFC and AMDSBSC , The transmission bandwidth = 2 times
the modulating signal bandwidth , vm(t).

• Both techniques transmit 2 sidebands i.e. LSB and USB, which

contain identical information - the wastage of energy still
occur.

• Another technique to reduce the transmitted power is AMSSB .

• In this technique of modulation only one sideband will be

transmitted either LSB or USB signal.
1 1
vm(t) Modulator SSB V AM −SSB (t ) = vm (t ) cos ωc t ± vh (t ) sin ωc t
2 2
vc(t)

30
Pemodulatan Amplitu
• To analyze, let vm(t) :
∴ vm (t ) = Em cos ωmt
 and  π
∴vh (t ) = Em cos ωmt −  = Em sin ωmt
 2
 Therefore amSSB :

Em Em
amSSB (t ) = cos ωmt cos ωc t ± sin ωmt sin ωc t
2 2
 From trigonometry:
1 1 1 1
kos ( A)kos( B ) = kos( A − B ) + kos( A + B ) ; sin( A) sin( B ) = kos( A − B ) − kos( A + B )
2 2 2 2

Hence:
Em Em
amSSB (t ) = cos( ωc − ωm ) t + cos( ωc + ωm ) t
4 4
 Em Em 
± cos( ωc − ωm ) t − cos( ωc + ωm ) t 
 4 4 
31
Pemodulatan Amplitu
• We can choose to transmit LSB or USB signal.
• Minus will have AMSSB-LSB and plus will have AMSSB-USB

Em E
amSSB − LSB (t ) = cos( ωmt ) kos( ωc t ) + m sin ( ωmt ) sin ( ωc t )
2 2
E E
= m cos[ ( ωc − ωm ) t ] + m cos[ ( ωc + ω m ) t ]
4 4
E E 
+  m cos[ ( ωc − ωm ) t ] − m cos[ ( ωc + ωm ) t ] 
 4 4 
E
= m cos[ ( ωc − ωm ) t ]
2
Em E
amSSB −USB (t ) = cos( ωmt ) kos( ωc t ) − m sin ( ωmt ) sin ( ωc t )
2 2
E E
= m cos[ ( ωc − ωm ) t ] + m cos[ ( ωc + ωm ) t ]
4 4
E E 
−  m cos[ ( ωc − ωm ) t ] − m cos[ ( ωc + ωm ) t ] 
 4 4 
E
= m cos[ ( ωc + ωm ) t ] 32
2 Pemodulatan Amplitu
 AMSSB-LSB
AM SSB (t ) = Em cos[ ( ωc − ωm ) t ]

AM SSB-USB

AM SSB (t ) = Em cos[ ( ωc + ωm ) t ]

33
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 • Frequency spectrum AMSSB signal

 Em
 2 cos[ ( ωc − ωm ) t ]
AMSSB-LSB
AM SSB (t ) = 
E
 m cos[ ( ωc + ωm ) t ] AMSSB-USB
 2

Amplitud (V )

Em Em
Em
2 2

0 ωm ωc − ω m ωc ωc + ω m ω (rads −1 )
LSB USB
34
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.3.2.1 Power AMSSB
Amplitud (V )

Em Em
2 2

0 ωc − ω m ωc ωc + ω m ω (rads −1 )

 Mathematical representation for AMSSB signal components:

 Em
 2 cos[ ( ωc − ωm ) t ] LSB signal VLSB
VAM − SSB (t ) = 
E
 m cos[ ( ωc + ωm ) t ] USB signal VUSB
 2
35
Pemodulatan Amplitu
PT = PLSB = PUSB We therefore reduced the
2 2 transmitting power by 50%
VLSB VUSB compared to amDSB-SC . Assume, R
= rms
= rms

R R = 1 ohm.
2 2
 Em   Em  Therefore
   
=  2 2
=  2 2
R R Em2
PT =
Em2 Em2 4
= =
8R 8R PT = PLSB = PUSB
Em2 Em2
= =
4R 4R

Therefore the efficiency, η = 100%

36
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 • Frequency spectrum for AMSSB signal
 Am
 2 cos[ ( ωc − ωm ) t ] AMSSB-LSB signal
amSSB (t ) = 
A
 m cos[ ( ωc + ωm ) t ] AMSSB-USB signal
 2

 Am Am
 2 δ ( f − ( fc − fm ) ) + δ ( f + ( fc − fm ) ) AMSSB-LSB
AM SSB ( f ) =  2
A Am
 m δ ( f − ( fc + fm ) ) + δ ( f + ( fc + fm ) ) AMSSB-USB
 2 2
Amplitud (V )
Modulating signal
Am
Am Am
2

0 fm fc − fm fc fc + fm f (Hz )
LSB USB
37
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 Vestigial Sideband (VSB)
Vestigial sideband (VSB) transmission : Modified AM transmission in which
one sideband, the carrier, and only a portion of the other sideband are
transmitted
• VSB signal spectrum
s (t ) =Ac m(t ) cos(2πf c t ) mAc m '(t ) sin(2πf c t )

VSB Signal, Spectrum

• VSB signal waveform

s(t ) = Ac m(t )cos(2π f c t ) mAc m '(t )sin(2π f ct )
where: m '(t ) : the output of m(t ) passing a filter
(− ) : full upper sideband, with a partial lower sideband.
(+ ) : full lower sideband, with a partial upper sideband.

38
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.4 AM Generation (DSBFC)
2 methods – Direct and Indirect methods.
(i) Direct

Message Signal vs(t)cosω ct vAM(t)

vs(t)
Balanced
modulator + mixer
Eccosω ct
Ec

cosω ct

v AM ( t ) = Ec cos ωc t + vs ( t ) cos ωc t
= ( Ec + vs ( t ) ) cos ωc t

39
 (ii) Indirect

vs(t) Nonlinear Band Pass

vi Device vk Filter vo
vc(t) (BPF)

vs ( t ) = Es cos ω s t
vc ( t ) = Ec cos ω c t
Input signal : vi ( t ) = vs ( t ) + vc ( t )
vi = Es cos ω s t + Ec cos ω c t
Output of the nonlinear device :
vk = E0 + m1vi + m2 vi2 + m3vi3 + .........

40
Therefore:

vk = E0 + m1 ( Es cos ω s t + Ec cos ω c t ) + m2 ( Es cos ω s t + Ec cos ω c t ) + ....

2

= E0 + m1 Es cos ω s t + m1 Ec cos ω c t + m2 Es cos ω s t + m2 Ec cos 2 ω c t

2 2 2

+ 2m2 Es Ec cos ω s t cos ω c t + ....

= E0 + m1 Es cos ω s t + m1 Ec cos ω c t + m2 Es cos ω s t + m2 Ec cos 2 ω c t
2 2 2

+ m2 Es Ec { cos( ω c + ω s ) t + cos( ω c − ω s ) t} + ....

vk(t) signal was then filtered using band pass filter (BPF) tuned at
the resonance frequency, fo = fc .
Output of the BPF , vo(t) ;
vo = m1 Ec cos ωc t + m2 Es Ec {cos(ωc + ωs )t + cos(ωc −ωs )t }
 m2 
= m1 Ec 1 + 2 Es cos ωs t  cos ωc t
 m1 
41
 Compare the output signal:

v AM ( t ) = E c (1 + m cos ωs t ) cos ωc t

 m2 
vo (t ) = m1 Ec 1 + 2 Es cos ωs t  cos ωc t
 m1 
The output signal is similar because the frequency components are
similar even though with different amplitudes

Frequency spectrum before BPF Frequency spectrum after BPF

vk
BPF vo
Frequency Carrier
Carrier
response
LSB USB

f f
0 fs 2fs (fc-fs) fc (fc+fs) 2fc 0 (fc-fs) fc (fc+fs)
42
 2.5 Generation of DSBSC
Direct – Using balanced modulator.
Functions like a multiplier – generates only LSB dan USB signals.

Original Signal Multiplier

vs(t) vs(t)cosω ct
v

vc(t)
t vDSBSC

(a) Message Signal

t
v

(c) DSBSC-modulated signal

t

(b) Carrier Signal 43

Mathematical Analysis
The carrier signal, vc given by Fourier Series as:
vc(t)= { sin ω ct + sin 3ω ct + ………}
If vs(t)= Escos ω st dan k is a multiplier sensitivity factor
Modulator output can be expressed:
vo = kvs ( t ) ⋅ vc ( t )
4 1 
= kEs cos ωs t ∗  sin ωc t + sin 3ωc t 
π 3 
4
= kEs cos ωs t ∗ sin ωc t + .....
π
4kEs 1
= {sin ( ωs + ωc ) t − sin ( ωs − ωc ) t}
π 2
2kEs
= {sin ( ωc + ωs ) t + sin ( ωc − ωs ) t}
π
2kEs   π USB  π LSB  
= cos − ( ωc + ωs ) t + cos − ( ωc − ωs ) t  44
π  2  2 
 Generation DSBSC – Indirect method
 Using 2 full AM modulators
 The input signal are the same with different polarity but the
same carrier frequencies

⇒ (Ec+ ½vs(t))cosω ct - (Ec- ½vs(t))cosω ct = vs(t))cosω ct

AM (Ec+½vs(t))cosω ct
½vs(t)
modulator

+
Eccosω ct vs(t))cosω ct
+
- (DSBSC Signal)
AM
-½vs(t)
modulator (Ec -½vs(t))cosω ct
45
 2.6 Generation of SSBSC
Selective Filtering Method
Can be realized in two ways : pg. 176, B.P.Lathi
(ii) Generate first DSBSC signal and
(iii)Then filtered DSBSC signal with band pass filter (BPF)

Balanced
vDSBSC BPF
vSSBSC
vs(t)
Modulator

cosω ct

BPF is a tuned circuit that is very selective that will choose either
LSB or USB to pass through.
Not important which sideband will be selected because both
sidebands contain the same information.
46
 SSBSC Generation Phase Shift Method
pg.176, B.P.Lathi

Another method – using 2 balanced modulator that will produced

2 DSBSC signal with 180o phase difference.
The circuit is called phase shifting circuit.

v1 = mE c cos ωs t cos ωc t
Balanced
v s (t ) = E s cos ωs t Modulator 1

cos ωc t
+ vSSBSC
+
90 Frequency
0
900 Frequency mixer +
Shift - π/2 Shift
Which delays the sin ωc t
phase of every E s sin ωs t
spectral component Balanced
by - π/2 Modulator 2
v 2 = mE c sin ωs t sin ωc t 47
Mathematical Analysis
Output of balanced modulator 1 : v1 (t ) = mEc cos ω s t cos ω c t
Output of balanced modulator 2 : v2 (t ) = mEc sin ωs t sin ωc t

The total output is : vSSBSC = v1(t) + v2(t)

= mEc cos ω s t cos ωc t + mEc sin ω s t sin ωc t

mEc
= {cos(ωc − ω s ) t + cos(ωc + ω s ) t}
2
cancelled
mEc
+ {cos( ωc − ω s ) t − cos(ωc + ω s ) t}
2

vSSBSC = mEc cos(ωc −ωs )t LSB being sent

48
 2.7 VSB Generation
vVSB
⊗
vDSBSC VSB Filter
vs(t)
• VSB signal spectrum
s (t ) =Ac m(t ) cos(2πf c t ) mAc m '(t ) sin(2πf c t )

2cosω ct

vVSB
Carrier
Part that is LSB USB
Filtered out

f (Hz)

49
 2.8 Demodulation
Proses mendapatkan semula isyarat memodulat atau maklumat
asal. Ia dilakukan di bahagian penerima (Receiver).
Penyahmodulatan dilakukan oleh litar demodulator juga
dipanggil litar pengesan (detector circuit).

Isyarat termodulat
Isyarat (AM/FM) Isyarat
pemancar penerima
maklumat maklumat

Pengesan paling mudah dan ekonomik untuk gelombang AM

adalah pengesan sampul (envelope detector).
Sebabnya sistem AM penuh adalah lebih popular dibandingkan
dengan sistem DSBSC dan SSBSC.
50
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.8.1 Penyahmodulatan AMDSB-FC
• Litar Pengesan Sampul – nama lain litar Pengesan
Penerus (rectifier detector) atau Pengesan Diod
(diode detector)
• Kos yang murah
• Mudah
• Tidak memerlukan penjana pembawa tempatan (local carrier)
 Isyarat asal terdapat pada sampul isyarat termodulat
AM modulated/envelop a b c d
signal

+ C’
C
R’
R
[Ec+ vs(t)] cos ω c t

LPF
Litar Pengesan Sampul 51
Pemodulatan Amplitu
(i) Pengesan Sampul
Kadar nyahcas atau kejatuhan voltan pada pemuat bergantung kepada
angkatap masa RC.
Sekiranya RC terlalu besar, kadar kejatuhan voltan adalah lambat
menyebabkan berlakunya perepangan pepenjuru (diagonal clipping) di
mana sebahagian puncak isyarat masukan tidak dapat di kesan pada
keluaran. (Rujuk Rajah 2.18(a)) .

Jika CR terlalu kecil, isyarat keluaran dari pemuat akan mengandungi riak
(ripple) yang banyak dan wujud herotan pada isyarat maklumat yang
dikehendaki (Rujuk Rajah 2.18(b)) .

RC terlalu RC terlalu
besar kecil

t t

Rajah 2.18(a) Rajah 2.18(b)

52
Pemodulatan Amplitu
(i) Pengesan Sampul

Untuk atasi masalah tersebut pastikan : RC ≤

(1 − m )
2 1/ 2

mωm
m - indek modulatan dan ω m - frekuensi sudut isyarat maklumat

Rs

C2
Diod
C1
R1 R2

LPF
Pembuang
Komponen DC
53
Pemodulatan Amplitu
Operasi Pengesan Sampul
D

Apabila s(t) > vo(t)

Rs
Diod, D dalam keadaan pincang hadapan
s(t) C1 R1 vo(t) Kapasitor, C1 akan mengecas sehingga
τ 1 = Rs C1 di mana
1
τ 1 <<
fc
D
Apabila s(t) < vo(t)
Rs Diod, D dalam keadaan pincang balikan
s(t) Kapasitor, C1 akan menyahcas sehingga
C1 R1 vo(t) τ 2 = R1C1 di mana
1 1
<< τ 2 <<
fc BW

54
Pemodulatan Amplitu
Kesan Pemilihan Nilai RC

Kesan pemilihan nilai RC yang betul

Kesan pemilihan nilai RC yang terlalu kecil

Kesan pemilihan nilai RC yang terlalu besar 55

Pemodulatan Amplitu
 Analisa Matematik
Dengan menganggap fungsi diod seperti satu suis, maka
keluaran pada diod, Vd :
Vd = { [ E c + v s ( t ) ] cos ωc t} k (t )
di mana k(t) ialah perwakilan matematik fungsi pensuisan diod
1 2  1 
∴Vd = {[ Ec + vs ( t ) ] cos ωc t }  +  cos ωc t − cos 3ωc t + ......
2 π  3 
1 2  1 
Vd = Vtitik b = {[ Ec + vs ( t ) ] cos ωc t}  +  cos ωc t − cos 3ωc t + ......
2 π  3 
1
= [ Ec + vs ( t ) ] + frekuensi lebih tinggi a b c
π d
LPF mempunyai frekuensi salun pada f s . C’
+
1
∴Vtitik c = [ Ec + vs ( t ) ]
π
1 Ec
∴Vtitik d = vs ( t ) kerana pemuat C menghalang arus terus
'
melaluinya
56.
π π
V pada titik a V pada titik b
[Ec+vs(t)] cos ω c t
Ec+vs(t)
1/π [Ec+vs(t)]

0 t
t

a b c d

+ C’

V pada titik c V pada titik d

1/π vs(t)
1/π [Ec+vs(t)]

t
t
57
 2.8.1 Penyahmodulatan AMDSB-FC
(ii) Pengesan Kuasa Dua
Litar Kuasa x(t)
amDSB-FC(t) Penapis
Dua y(t)
Lulus Rendah
y =x2 C

x(t ) = {amDSB − FC (t )}2 = {[ Ac + m(t )] kos ω c t}2 Membuang

= Ac2 kos 2ω c t + m 2 (t ) kos 2ω c t + 2 Ac m(t ) kos 2ω c t komponen DC

= 0.5 Ac2 + 0.5 Ac kos 2ω c t + 0.5m 2 (t ) + 0.5m 2 (t ) kos 2ω c t + Ac m(t ) + Ac m(t )kos 2ω c t
2

= 0.5 Ac2 + Ac m(t ) + 0.5m 2 (t ) + [0.5 Ac + 0.5m 2 (t ) + Ac m(t ) ]kos 2ω c t

2
                         

Komponen Isyarat Isyarat

DC maklumat Harmonik
Setelah melalui LPF keluarannya adalah isyarat maklumat yang
dikehendaki ia itu :
y (t ) = Ac m(t ) 58
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.9 Penyahmodulatan amDSB-SC
• Oleh kerana sampul isyarat termodulat tidak sama dengan
bentuk isyarat memodulat, m(t) jadi teknik pengesanan sampul
tidak boleh digunakan.

• Pengesanan isyarat termodulat boleh dilakukan dengan

menggunakan pengesan segerak (synchronous detector) ataupun
dipanggil sebagai pengesan koheren (coherent)

59
Pemodulatan Amplitu
2.9.1 Pengesan Segerak (Synchronous)

x(t) Penapis
amDSB-SC(t) X Lulus Rendah
y(t)

Penjana Pembawa DSBSC DEMOD

Multiplier
Tempatan (LO)
c(t)=cos(ωct)
• Litar segerak, memerlukan sebuah penjana pembawa
tempatan.
• Di mana isyarat penjana ini perlu disegerakkan dengan isyarat
pembawa maklumat yang digunakan pada pemancar.
Analisa matematik :
x(t ) = amDSB −SC (t ) cos(ωc t )
= m(t ) cos(ωc t ) cos(ωc t )
= m(t ) cos 2 (ωc t ) 60
Pemodulatan Amplitu
Analisa Matematik
• Keluaran pendarab adalah

x(t ) = m(t )kos 2 (ω c t )

• Identiti trigonometri
1
kos (u ) = [1 + kos(2u )]
2

2
• Maka
1
x(t ) = m(t )[1 + kos(2ωc t )]
2
1 1
= m(t ) + m(t )kos (2ωc t )
2 2

• Selepas melalui LPF isyarat keluaran adalah isyarat maklumat asal

1
y (t ) = m(t )
2
61
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.9.1.1 Kesan Ralat Frekuensi Pembawa
 Jika terdapat bezafasa antara isyarat pembawa yang
dijana dan isyarat masukan DSBSC.

x(t) Penapis
amDSB-SC(t) X Lulus Rendah
y(t)

Penjana Pembawa
Multiplier
Tempatan (LO)
c(t)=kos[(ωc+Δω)t]

• Masalah ini akan menyebabkan herotan berlaku di dalam

proses penyahmodulatan isyarat amDSB-SC.

62
Pemodulatan Amplitu
Analisa Matematik Ralat Frekuensi
• Keluaran pendarab adalah
x(t ) = [ m(t ) kos(ωc t )]kos[(ωc + ∆ω)t ]
• Identiti trigonometri :
1
kos ( A)kos ( B ) = [ kos( A − B) + kos( A + B)]
2
• Maka
1
x(t ) = m(t )[ kos(ϕ ) + kos (2ωc t + ϕ )]
2
1 1
= m(t ) kos(ϕ ) + m(t ) kos( 2ωc t + ϕ )
2 2
• Dengan melalukan isyarat x(t) ke dalam penapis lulus rendah,
isyarat maklumat dapat diperolehi semula.
1
y (t ) = m(t )kos(ϕ )
2 63
Pemodulatan Amplitu
Implikasi Ralat Fasa Pembawa
• Kesan ralat fasa ini akan mewujudkan herotan, oleh yang
demikian penalaan isyarat pembawa tempatan perlulah tetap.
• Keluaran pada LPF mempunyai faktor kos(φ).
1
y (t ) = m(t )kos(ϕ )
2
• Di mana jika
1
ϕ =0 y (t ) = m(t )
2
π
ϕ= y (t ) = 0
2
Untuk memastikan pengayun tempatan (LO) ditetapkan fasanya
keada isyarat masukan supaya keluarannya isyarat maklumat/asal
maksima, Gelung Costas / PLL digunakan.
Secara amnya gelung ini mempunyai pengayun pengawal voltan
(VCO) yang mengunci (locked) kepada frekuensi pembawa isyarat
masukan DSBSC dengan ralat fasa yang kecil. 64
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.9.2 Penyahmodulatan AMSSBSC
2.9.2.1 Pengesan Segerak SSBSC

x(t) Penapis
amSSBSC(t) X Lulus Rendah
vo(t)

vc(t)
Multiplier
Analisa Matematik :

v SSBSC −USB = cos( ωc + ωs ) t dengan amplitud bersamaan 1

1
v o = v SSBSC ⋅ v c = cos( ωc + ωs ) t ( cos ωc t ) = [ cos( 2ωc + ωs ) t + cos ωS t ]
2
1
Selepas LPF, v LPF = cos ωS t ⇒ komponen isyarat asal
2
65
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 Pengesan Segerak SSBSC - Implikasi Ralat
Jika isyarat pembawa yang dijana pada pengesan/penerima
mempunyai bezafasa;

v c ( t ) = cos( ωc t + φ)
1
v o = cos( ωc + ωs ) t ⋅ cos( ωc t + φ) = [ cos( 2ωc t + ωs t + φ) + cos( ωs t − φ) ]
2
1
∴ v LPF = cos( ωs t − φ) di mana isyarat asal masih diperolehi dan ralat fasa cuma
2
memberi kesan minima

2.9.3 Pengesan VSB

Sama seperti pengesan segerak DSBSC dan SSBSC di mana
isyarat masukannya adalah isyarat VSB.

66
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.10 Penerima Superhetrodyne
Digunakan dalam sistem AM/FM radio komersial.
Isyarat RF (540-1600 KHz) yang diterima diterjemah kepada jalur
frekuensi pertengahan (IF = 455 KHz) untuk pemprosesan
seterusnya iaitu menguat, menapis dan menyahmodulat.

Peranti yang melakukan terjemahan frekuensi isyarat termodulat

dipanggil pencampur frekuensi (frequency mixer).
Operasinya disebut sebagai pencampuran frekuensi atau
penukaran frekuensi atau heterodin.
Secara matematik ;

fLO = fRF ± fIF

di mana fLO ialah frekuensi dari pengayun tempatan.

67
 2.10 Penerima Superhetrodyne
Isyarat RF AM
(540-1600) KHz
[ A + m(t )] cos ω c t
Antena [ A + m(t )] cos ω IF t
Km(t )
Penala Penguat Mixer Penapis Penguat Penguat
RF RF IF IF Audio

Penalaan
Pengayun f IF = f LO − f c
sepunya, fc
Tempatan
fLO = fc ± fIF

Pembesar
Penyahmodulat
Suara

fm 68
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 How frequency conversion is done
Let say we want to analyze a frequency mixer, used to change
the carrier frequency of a modulated signal m(t) cos ω ct from ω
c to some other frequency ω I .

Solution :
x(t) = m(t) cos ω ct x 2 cos ω mixt
= m(t) [cos (ω c - ω mix )t + cos (ω c + ω mix )t ]
where ω mix = ω c + ω I or ω c - ω I
If we select ω mix = ω c - ω I
x(t) = m(t) [cos ω I t + cos (2ω c - ω I )t ]
If we select ω mix = ω c + ω I
x(t) = m(t) [cos ω I t + cos (2ω c + ω I )
69
t] Pemodulatan Amplitu
How frequency conversion is done
Bandpass filter tuned to ω I , will pass m(t) cos ω I t .
Thus the carrier frequency has been translated to ω I from ω c

m(t) cos ω c t x(t) m(t) cos ω I t

BPF tuned
to ω I

2 cos (ω c ± ω I ) t

ω
0 ωI 2ω c - ω I 2ω c 2ω c + ω I

Frequency mixer or converter and the spectrum representaion

70
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 Penerima Superhetrodyne
• Kelebihan penerima superhetrodyne
– Dapat mengurangkan kelemahan yang ada pada komponen
yang digunakan di mana tidak dapat beroperasi pada
frekuensi tinggi.
– Membolehkan komponen yang digunakan dapat beroperasi
pada frekuensi yang tetap (IF), dengan itu dapat
mengoptimumkan penggunaannya serta membuatkannya
menjadi lebih murah kosnya.

Jadual parameter untuk penerima radio AM dan FM

Radio AM Radio FM
Julat Pembawa RF 0.535 – 1.605 MHz 88 – 108 MHz
Frekuensi Jalur Tengah (IF) 0.455 kHz 10.7 MHz
Lebar Jalur IF 10 kHz 200 kHz
71
Pemodulatan Amplitu
 2.11.1 Hingar dalam DSBSC
Pengesan segerak / Synchronous detector
x(t) = r(t)cosω c Penapis
r(t) X t Lulus Rendah
y(t)

cosω c t Isyarat hingar

Isyarat termodulat yang diterima : r (t ) = vDSB −SC (t ) + ni (t ) cos ωc t

Oleh itu
r (t ) = v s (t ) cos ω c t + ni (t ) cos ω c t
2
Kuasa isyarat masukan :  v s (t ) 
Si =  
 2 
Kuasa hingar masukan :
N i = [ ni (t )]
2

72
 Maka ;
2
Si v s (t )
( SNR ) i = = 2
N i 2ni (t )
x(t) = r(t)cosω c
Keluaran pendarab : r(t) X t
x (t ) = r (t ) cos ωc t
cosω c t
= v s (t ) cos 2 ω c t + ni (t ) cos 2 ω c t
1 1 1 1
= v s (t ) + v s (t ) cos 2ω c t + ni (t ) + ni (t ) cos 2ω c t
2 2 2 2
Filtered out

Selepas LPF : x(t) Penapis

y(t)
Lulus Rendah
1 1
y (t ) = v s (t ) + ni (t )
2 2
73
 Output y(t) :
1 1
y (t ) = v s (t ) + ni (t )
2 2
2 2
Kuasa isyarat 1  v s (t )
S o =  v s (t ) = 2
keluaran : 2  4 S o vs (t )
; ( SNR ) o = = 2
Kuasa hingar 1 
2 2
ni (t ) N o ni (t )
N o =  ni (t ) =
keluaran : 2  4

Maka ;
( SNR ) o = 2( SNR ) i
Persamaan menunjukkan bahawa pengesan telah menambah baik
nisbah isyarat kepada hingar sebanyak dua kali bagi kes DSBSC.
74
 2.11.2 Hingar dalam SSBSC
Isyarat masukan dengan kehadiran hingar :
r (t ) = v s (t ) cos ω c t ± v s (t ) sin ω c t + ni (t ) cos ω c t
*

*
di mana v s (t ) = v s (t ) (yang dianjak fasa sebanyak 90o )

*
dan magnitudnya adalah sama ia itu , | v s (t ) |=| v s (t ) |

Input signal :
Input noise :
2 2
 s 
v (t )  v
*
s (t )

Si =   + N i = [ ni (t )]
2

 2   2 
2 *2
vs (t ) vs (t ) Therefore :
= +
2 2 S i v s (t )
2

S i = v s (t )
2 ( SNR ) i = = 2
N i ni (t ) 75
After the multiplier:
x (t ) = r (t ) cos ωc t
= [v s (t ) cos ω c t ± v s (t ) sin ω c t + ni (t ) cos ω c t ] cos ω c t
*

= v s (t ) cos 2 ω c t ± v s (t ) sin ω c t cos ω c t + ni (t ) cos 2 ω c t

*

1 1 1 * 1 1
= vs (t ) + vs (t ) cos 2ωc t ± vs (t ) sin 2ωc t + ni (t ) + ni (t ) cos 2ωc t
2 2 2 2 2

After LPF : 1 1 Filtered out

y (t ) = v s (t ) + ni (t )
2 2
Output :
2
1 
2
v (t )
2
; v s (t )
S o =  v s (t ) = s ( SNR ) o = 2
2  4 ni (t )
2 2
1  ni (t ) Therefore :
N o =  ni (t ) =
2  4 ( SNR ) o = ( SNR ) i 76
 2.11.3 Hingar dalam AM Penuh
r (t ) = [ E c + v s (t )] cos ω c t + ni (t ) cos ω c t
= E c cos ωc t + v s (t ) cos ωc t + ni (t ) cos ωc t
2 2 2 2
 E c   v s (t )  E c + v s (t )
Si =   +   = ; N i = [ n i (t ) ] 2

  
2 2  2

After the multiplier: r(t) x(t) = r(t)cosω c

X t
x(t ) = r (t ) cos ω c t
cosω c t
= [ E c + v s (t )] cos ω c t + ni (t ) cos ω c t
2 2

1 1 1 1
= [ E c + v s (t )] + [ E c + v s (t )] cos 2ω c t + ni (t ) + ni (t ) cos 2ω c t
2 2 2 2
Filtered out
77
After LPF :
1 1 1 Therefore :
y (t ) = E c + v s (t ) + ni (t ) 2 2
2 2 2 v s (t )
v s (t ) S i
( SNR ) o = 2 = 2 .
DC value removed ni (t ) ni (t ) S i
2
v s (t ) Si
Yields
= 2
. 2 2
1 1 ni (t ) E c + v s (t )
y (t ) = v s (t ) + ni (t )
2 2 2
2
And 2v s (t ) Si
1
2

2
v s (t ) = 2 2
. 2
S o =  v s (t ) = E c + v s (t ) ni (t )
2  4 2
2 2v s (t ) Si
1 
2
ni (t ) = .
N o =  ni (t ) = Ec
2 2
+ v s (t ) N i
2  4
It is shown that (SNR)o is always
less than (SNR)i as | v (t ) |< E
s 78
c
Contoh 2.7 :
Dapatkan peratus penjimatan kuasa sistem DSBSC berbanding dengan sistem AM
penuh untuk (i) m = 1 , (ii) m = 0.5 .

Penyelesaian :
(i ) m = 1 (ii ) m = 0.5
 m2   0.52 
PAM = Pc 1 +  PAM = Pc 1 +  = 1.125Pc
 2   2 
 1 m 2 Pc 0.52 Pc
= Pc 1 +  = 1.5 Pc PSB = = = 0.125 Pc
 2 2 2
m 2 Pc Pc 1.125 − 0.125
PSB = = = 0.5Pc Penjimatan kuasa = x 100
2 2 1.125
P − PSB = 88.9 %
Penjimatan kuasa = AM x 100
PAM
1.5 − 0.5
= x 100 = 66.7 %
1.5 79
Contoh 2.8 :
Adakah sistem DSBSC lebih baik dari sistem SSBSC dalam perekitaran
hingar ?

Penyelesaian :
Tidak. Ini adalah kerana hingar berkadar terus dengan BW. Sistem DSBSC
memerlukan BW dua kali lebih besar dari sistem SSBSC. Oleh itu kuasa
hingar juga adalah dua kali lebih besar. Kesimpulannya, prestasi SSBSC
adalah sama dengan DSBSC dari segi penambahbaikan hingar dalam
perekitaran hingar putih.

80
Contoh 2.9 :
Satu isyarat maklumat , vm (t ) = mEc cos ωmt dimodulatkan secara
Pemodulatan AM. Buktikan bahawa ( SNR ) o = 2 3 ( SNR ) i jika indek
pemodulatan , m = 1.

Penyelesaian :
2
2vm (t ) Si
Diketahui ( SNR ) o AM = 2 2
.
Ec + vm (t ) N i
2
 mEc 
2  2
 2  S 2 m Si
= . i
= .
 mEc  N i 2 + m N i
2 2
2
Ec +  
 2 
Gantikan m = 1 ;
2 Si
( SNR ) o = . (terbukti )
3 Ni
81
Contoh 2.10 :
Isyarat maklumat , vm ( t ) = 5 cos 1000πt dipancarkan menggunakan
DSBSC. Hingar berketumpatan spektra kuasa 10-4 Watt/Hz ditambah pada
isyarat semasa pemancaran. Dapatkan SNR keluaran penerima dalam dB.

Solution :
Anggapkan hingar yang ditambah ialah hingar putih
η
=> o = 10 − 4 ; ∴ηo = 2 ×10 −4
2
Kuasa purata hingar masukan , N i = ηo × BWDSBSC
( )
= ηo × 2 f m = 2( 500 ) 2 ×10 − 4 = 0.2
vm2 ( t ) 1  52 
and Si = =   = 6.25
2 2 2 
where vm2 ( t ) is rms power
Si 6.25
∴ for DSBSC system ; =
Ni 0.2
∴ ( SNR ) o = 2( SNR ) i = 62.5 82