Chapter 4

Amplitude (Linear) Modulation

 Outlines
• Introduction
• Base-band and Carrier Communication
• Amplitude Modulation (AM):DSB-Large Carrier
• Amplitude Modulation: Double sideband- Suppressed
Carrier (DSBSC)
• Quadrature amplitude Modulation (QAM)
• Single Sideband Modulation (SSB)
• Vestigial Sideband (VSB)
• Frequency mixing
• Superhetrodyne AM radio.
• Frequency division multilplexing (FDM).
2
 Introduction
• Modulation is a process that causes a shift in
the range of frequencies of a message signal.
• A communication that does not use modulation
is called baseband communication
• A communication that uses modulation is
called Carrier communication

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Example of AM transmitter

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Example of AM (radio) Receiver

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 Baseband and Carrier
Communication
• Baseband signal: is message signal
(information bearing signal) delivered by the
information source or the input transducer .it is
usually low frequency signal.
• Communication that uses modulation to shift
the frequency spectrum of message signal is
known as carrier communication.
– Amplitude modulation (AM),
– Frequency modulation (FM)
– Phase modulation (PM) 6
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Double Sideband Large Carrier (DSB-LC)

s AM (t ) = m (t ) cos 2π f c t + A cos 2π f c t

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8
Another example of AM Waveform

c (t ) = Ec sin 2π f c t
S (t ) = (Ec + m (t ))sin 2π f ct
m (t ) = Em sin 2π f m t

c (t ) = Ec sin 2π f ct s (t ) = (Ec + m (t )) sin 2π f c t

m (t ) = Em sin 2π f m t

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 Modulation Index
• The amount of modulation in AM signal is given by
its modulation index:
mp E max − E min
µ= or , m p = min m (t )
A E max + E min
E max = A + m p , E min = A − m p
When mp = A , µ =1 or 100% modulation.
Over-modulation, i.e. mp >A , should be avoided
because it will create distortions. 10
Effect of Modulation Index

µ <1

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µ =1

µ >1

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Effects of Modulation Index

µ=1 µ>1

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 Sideband and Carrier Power
A2
Pc =
• Carrier Power 2

Pm
• Sideband Power Ps =
2
• Total power ptot = Pc + Ps

• Power efficiency η = Ps
Pc + Ps
• For single tone modulation
µ2 µ2
η= 100%, Ptot = Pc [1 + ]
2+ µ 2 2
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 15
Modulation index
 Example
• Conventional AM signal with a sinusoidal
message has the following parameters:
A=10, µ=0.5, fc= 1MHz, and fm= 1kHz
s Am (t )
1. Find time-domain expression
2. Find its Fourier transform
3. Sketch its spectrum
4. Find the signal power, carrier power and the
power efficiency
5. Find the AM signal bandwidth
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 Example
• A given AM (DSB-LC) broadcast station
transmits an average carrier power output
of 40kW and uses a modulation index of
0.707 for sine-wave modulation. Calculate
a) the total output power
b) the power efficiency
c) the peak amplitude of the output if the
antenna is represented by a 50-Ω
resistance load.
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Generation of AM Signals
diode as NLE or as switch

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Square-law modulator
v o (t ) = av i (t ) + bv (t )
i
2

v (t ) = [aA + 2Abm (t )]cos 2π f c t

'
o

f c ≥ 3B To avoid overlap the spectrum of

m 2 (t ) and M (f − f c )
 Switching modulator

• Assume m (t ) = A , and diode an ideal switch

v o (t ) = v i (t )w (t ),where
n −1
1 2 (−1)
∞
w (t ) = + ∑ cos 2π f c (2n − 1)t
2 π n =1 2n − 1
A 2
⇒ v o (t ) = [ + m (t )]cos 2π f c t
'

2 π
 Demodulation of AM signals
• AM signals can be demodulated by
– Envelope detector
– Rectifier detector
– Coherent (synchronous) detector.

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Envelope Detector

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Envelope Detector (Cont.)

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Rectifier Detector

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25
 Coherent detector

s Am (t )
V(t) LPF
A
2 m (t ) cos θ
A cos(2π f c t + θ )

Local
oscillator
 Advantages/Disadvantages of
Conventional AM (DSB-LC)
• Advantages
– Very simple demodulation (envelope detector)
– “Linear” modulation

• Disadvantages
– Low power efficiency
– Transmission bandwidth twice the message
bandwidth.

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Double-sideband suppressed carrier
DSBSC

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The modulating signal m(t)

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DSBSC signal: m(t) cos(ωct)

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Modulated signal m(t) cos(ωct)

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Example.

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33
 DSBSC Modulators
• DSBSC signal can be generated using
several types of modulators:
– Multiplier Modulators
– Nonlinear Modulators
– Switching Modulators

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Multiplier modulator
Nonlinear Modulators

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Switching Modulators

a b

+
km (t ) cos 2π f ct
M(t) BPF
v2

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Switching Modulators

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39
Diode-bridge electronic switch

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Series-bridge diode modulator

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Shunt-bridge diode modulator

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Ring Modulator

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Ring modulator

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 Demodulation of DSBSC

m (t ) cos(2π f c t )
V(t) LPF
A
2 m (t ) cos θ
A cos(2π f c t + θ )

Local
oscillator
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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

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Transmitter

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Receiver

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 QAM cont.
• Quadrature multiplexing is used in color
television to multiplex the signals which
carry the information about colors.

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Single Sideband (SSB)

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SSB time representation

S SSB (t ) = m (t ) cos 2π f c t m mˆ (t ) sin 2π f c t ,

− :USB
+ : LSB
1
mˆ (t ) = m (t ) ∗ @Hilpert transform of m (t )
πt
Selective filtering method

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Selective filtering method (Cont.)

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Phase–Shift Method

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Phase–Shift Method

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Hilbert transform

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 Phase–Shift Method (Cont.)

• Advantages:
– Does not deploy bandpass filter.
– Suitable for message signals with
frequency content down to dc.
• Disadvantage:
– Practical realization of a wideband 90 o
phase shift circuit is difficult.

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 Demodulation of SSB Signals
• Demodulation of SSB signals can be
accomplished by using a synchronous detector
as used in the demodulation of normal AM and
DSBSC signals.

• If we want to use an envelope detector, it can

be shown that we must insert a pilot carrier
signal Acos(2 πfct) to the SSB signal,
where A >> m(t) and A >> m^(t).

• The pilot signal carries most of the transmission

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power which becomes inefficient.
 Example
• A DSB-LC signal is generated using a 1-kHz
carrier and the input is m(t)= cos(200πt). The
modulation index is 80%. The lower sideband
is attenuated (assume ideal filter). Find an
expression for the resulting SSB-LC signal if it
develops 0.58 W across a one-Ohm resistive
load.

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Vestigial-Sideband Modulation (VSB)

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VSB modulator

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 Demodulation of VSB
• Demodulation of VSB signals can be
accomplished by using a synchronous detector.

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Vestigial-Sideband Modulation (VSB)

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VSB modulator

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 Demodulation of VSB
• Demodulation of VSB signals can be
accomplished by using a synchronous detector.

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 Transfer function of LPF in VSB
receiver

1
H LPF (f ) = ,f ≤B
H BPF (f − f c ) + H BPF (f + f c )
67
68
 VSB+C
• VSB modulated signals can also be
detected by an envelope detector.

• As in the demodulation of a SSB signal,

we need to send a pilot carrier signal,
resulting an inefficient use of available
transmitted power.

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 Comparison of conventional AM,
DSB-SC, SSB and VSB.
• Conventional AM: simple to modulate and to
demodulate, but low power efficiency (50%
max) and double the bandwidth
• DSB-SC: high power efficiency, more complex
to modulate & demodulate, double the
bandwidth
• SSB: high power efficiency, the same
(message) bandwidth, more difficult to
modulate & demodulate.
• VSB: lower power efficiency & larger bandwidth
but easier to implement. 70
 Multiplexing
• Multiplexing: combining a number of message
signals into a composite signal to transmit them
simultaneously over a wideband channel.
• Two commonly-used types: time-division
multiplexing (TDM) and frequency division
multiplexing (FDM).
• TDM: transmit different message signals in
different time slots (mostly digital).
• FDM: transmit different message signals in
different frequency slots (bands) using different
carrier frequencies. 71
FDM

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73
74
Time Division Multiplexing

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TDM

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AM receiver for many radio stations ?

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 Frequency mixing
• It is desired in communication system to translate
the spectrum of the modulated signal up word or
down word in frequency to be centered around
desired frequency
f 0 = f l −fc
f l − f c : up conversion
⇒f0 =
f c − f l : down conversion
Superheterodyne AM Receiver

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• The RF amplifier
amplifies the
incoming signal
and start the
process of
selecting the
wanted station
and rejecting the
unwanted ones.

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The Mixer and the IF Amplifier

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82
83
84
 Introduction to Carrier Acquisition
• Consider a DSB-SC demodulator where a
received signal is m(t) cos(ωct) and the
local carrier is 2 cos[(ωc+∆ω) t+δ ] . Find
the LPF output if
a) ∆ω=0, and
b) δ=0

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 Carrier Acquisition
• To ensure identical carrier frequencies at the
transmitter and the receiver, we can use quartz
crystal oscillators, which are generally very
stable.

• At very high carrier frequencies, the quartz-

crystal performance may not be adequate, we
can use the phased-locked loop (PLL)

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 Phased-Locked Loop (PLL)
• Phase-locked loop is one of the most
commonly used circuit in both
telecommunication and measurement
engineering.

• PLL can be used to track the phase and the

frequency of the carrier component of an
incoming signal.

87
 • A PLL has three basic components:
1. A voltage controlled oscillator
2. A multiplier
3. A loop filter H(s)

vin(t) x(t) Loop Filter e0(t)

H(s)

vout(t) Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator (VCO)
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recovered carrier signal
• In every application, the PLL tracks the
frequency and the phase of the input signal.
However, before a PLL can track, it must first
reach the phase-locked condition.
• In general, the VCO center frequency differs
from the frequency of the input signal.
• First the VCO frequency has to be tuned to the
input frequency by the loop. This process is
called frequency pull-in.
• Then the VCO phase has to be adjusted
according to the input phase. This process is
known as phase lock-in. 89
 How the PLL works?
vin (t ) = A sin(ω c t + θ i )
vin(t) x(t) Loop Filter e0(t)

H(s)

vout(t) Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator (VCO)

vout (t ) = B cos(ω c t + θ o ) 90
 Signal Squaring Method
m(t) cos(ωc t) c cos(2ωc t)
BPF
( )2 PLL
@ 2 ωc

2:1 Frequency
k cos(ωc t) divider

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 Suggested Problems
• 4.2-1 4.2-2 4.2-3 4.2-4 4.2-6, 4.2-8
• 4.3-1 4.3-2 4.3-3 4.3-4 4.3-7 4.3-8
• 4.5-1 4.5-2 4.5-3 4.5-5, 4.5-6
• 4.6-1
• 4.8-1 4.8-2

• Read Section 4.9 (Television)

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