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Chapter 1

1.

V (plain past) something'

= 'have just done something; have just finished doing

When I was a newcomer to Japan, I had trouble understanding Japanese.

2.

and ! can be used with the meaning 'that ~' when an item you are

Both

referring to is not in sight. is used when both the speaker and the hearer are (or are assumed to be familiar with a person or thing in !uestion. When only the speaker or the hearer is familiar with an item, ! should be used.

3. V

(plain) "#$%

"his pattern indicates a change which has taken place or will take place. Just as an &#ad$ecti%e changes to & (e.g. '% and &ad$ecti%e to & $ (e.g., ($% , when a %erb occurs with %, "#$ is inserted. $)*+,#-./0"#$ I came to ha%e an interest in Japan after I went to Japan 1 2.3456789:9;<%"#$ =9 'nless you study kan$i, you won't become able to read Japanese newspapers.

4. >

"his is a sentence#final particle of e(clamation. Its use is generally restricted to men in informal con%ersation, but it is also used by women in monologues. In con%ersation, women would use ~( ?@. A It's been a long time since I last saw you. )Women would say ?@.* BCDEFG-& I wish I could go to +frica once,

Women would say - & H I ? @ if addressing someone in con%ersation. -owe%er, women will often use the abo%e form in e(pressing their own desires or feelings without addressing anyone in particular.

5. V

(plain) J$% = 'It has been decided/arranged that ~'

. (plain ~'

J$&% / 'be e(pected0supposed to1 ~it is a rule0custom that

J $ % indicates that a certain decision has been made for the speaker by outside forces. It is often used when a situation has been arranged or when one is scheduled to do something. J$&% , on the other hand, is used to describe a rule, regulation or social custom. KL.M@%J$&NI am to teach 2nglish in Japan. OPKQR.N%J$ )It has been arranged that* I will be working at a Japanese company. S$T%U0.VWJ$&N When you enter a Japanese house, you are supposed to take off your shoes.

6. V

(stem) $& = something is difficult to V. to V.

V (stem) XN& = something is eas

7. V

(plain) J$N% = 'decide to do ~'

3ompared with J $ % , this pattern indicates acti%e decision making by the person in%ol%ed. Note4 to say 'decide not to do ~' use . (& form J$%

8. !"

!# = '$hen !"% !#'

When clause is followed by a sentence (/56 in the past tense, it means 'when.' "he second sentence usually e(presses an e%ent or state you did not e(pect. YZ[\]^$ my teacher. & 7esterday, when I went to the library, I saw

9. J_>&

= 'can't possibl '

"his phrase e(presses a %ery strong sense of impossibility. "he %erb is usually in potential form. )Note4 J _ implies reluctance or hesitance whereas ` 9 ` 9 $ust cannot be done.* a9 all. states it

J_ bcd6=9 "here is so much that I can't possibly eat it

efKJ _S9g@=9I can't possibly buy a house in "okyo.

10. V

(stem of N form & h ) = ''a

of doing V'

1 2 B 0 _ $ _ ; - h a 9 % K i j ( & 8an$i are difficult because [even] one kanji [often] has a number of readings.

11. >

& = 'evidentl ; it seems that'

>& e(presses one's con$ectures. It can be attached to nouns (e.g. k & , stems of #ad$ecti%es (e.g. ( & , plain forms of & #ad$ecti%es (e.g. '&& and plain forms of %erbs (e.g. & . It tends to be used when one's con$ecture is based on what one has heard. k l baths. 0&mnopq+& It seems that the Japanese people like hot

efrs: tu-$&& It seems that "okyo is a difficult place to li%e in because e%erything is e(pensi%e. DvFGKw^]^.Exyz{|K}":& 2%idently, students call teachers by their first name in +merica.

12.V ~< (

= 'the first ( after V)ing'$hen a verb occurs instead of a noun%

this e*pression ta+es the form of V" ~ < V#% meaning '$hen V" happens% then for the first time V# happens.

w~<K]^Xw^$mm`&O I met many teachers and

students at the first picnic of the semester. ~<BA5K9 When I went to Japan, I spent a whole day speaking only in Japanese, for the first time in my life. w $ ~< k$ O& When I entered college, I met a Japanese person for the first time.

13. Chapter 2

V &K = ''ithout V)ing; instead of V)ing'

. &K , one of the negati%e #forms of a %erb, is often followed by another %erb, and indicates a manner in which a certain action is carried out. K_& KbR.<%A Z[\&KSK34N%w^_&% . &K often carries a connotation that one didn't do what one was e(pected to do. .&&$ / '7ou should ~ (lit., it would be good if you did ~ ' "his e(pression is usually used to suggest the opposite of what the other person is doing or not doing. _J?6 &&$7ou should go to bed earlier. &J]^$85&&$ 7ou should ask your teacher about things that you don't understand. )said to someone who is hesitant about asking the teach some !uestions.*

!6$ = 'besides; moreover'

efk&!6$rs:_ t&Ku-$&KN +4a!#A?7ou don't look well today. B4#9 & !6$l?0_,J %9K 7es. I ha%e a headache, and I also ha%e a slight fe%er. +49Ah&&? In that case, you should go home early and rest. 9ther con$unctions which are often used include ! 6 K 'therefore1 so,' ! 'and1 and then1 and also,' ! 6 'after that.' meaning 'and.' !6K ! is the most general con$unction ! 6 emphasi:es that an e%ent follow emphasi:es 'causal' relation between two

another e%ent in time, and sentences.

Yg&r$+ !6z!S "%US + I went shopping yesterday. +fter that I went to a party at a friend's house and came home about ten at night.

In the sample sentence abo%e, both !6 and ! are fine. -owe%er, !6 emphasi:es the fact that it was after the shopping that the speaker went to the party. In some cases, therefore, !6 and ! are not interchangeable.

Y ! H ; !6 Im N .b c (; means that it is ungrammatical 7esterday I went to a Japanese restaurant and ate sushi. U&@!H ; !6IU <y friend came to my home about si(, and left about eight. !6K presents a reason or cause.

-m!6K #+m69KN It was snowing. "he flight was delayed because of that. >& , when used with a negati%e, means that something is not easily done or that it takes time for something to happen. 12m @6N It's terrible because it takes a long time for me to memori:e kan$i. .9AK?j6=9K I had coffee, and so I couldn't fall asleep easily.

,uestion 'ord & >&

=or embedding a wh#!uestion in another sentence, simply change the ending of the embedded !uestion into the plain form. "he copula A is optional. Be sure to keep the !uestion particle at the end of the clause. !0,#.N%A=9 I don't know yet what I will be doing after graduation. +lso note that a yes#no !uestion can be embedded in another sentence by putting the predicate into the plain form and by adding #. A&. #m@&=9 I don't remember whether I paid the copying charge or not.

>& = 'onl ' always occurs with a negati%e. "he implied meaning is that the amount0item mentioned is not enough or less than e(pected.

 9;& &% It's too bad that there are so many children who read only comic books. >ote that , like the particle _ , replaces the particles , , and . , but other particles are retained as in wK 'only at school,' $ 'only to my friend,' etc. 0 / 'in other words1 that is1 namely1 in short' j BAJ_ %BW&A0./ &% JK BW&g&rK+&A In the old days, there was a time when a dollar was worth ?@A yen, but now it is worth about BAC yen. In other words, nowadays, with dollars in Japan you can buy only a third of what you used to be able to.

!entence & 5KN = '-hat is to sa ; It follo's that; -hat means...'

)5entence D 5 K N * states a logical conclusion which can be drawn from pre%ious statements. It often gi%es a summary or a restatement of pre%ious statements. #ad$ecti%e4 T5KNTA5KN &#ad$ecti%e4 '&5KN'5KN >oun4 >oun D J&#0A D 5 .erb4 5KN&5KN5KN +4 yya9$_u9K&9KN" <iss 5mith has li%ed in Japan for as long as ten years B4 A5KN? "hat's why she speaks fluent Japanese, rightE +4 k_5&K34&N -e studies all the time without e%en going out. B4"K+%5KN? >o wonder he is good.

>$" = 'depending on'

&a0J!$"&& @"& What greeting you may use may %ary depending on the weather of the day.

 >$

% / 'correspond to ~' %Japanese FkonnichiwaF corresponds to

9$L-ello$ 2nglish Fhello.F

B$N-ow many yen is a dollarE

>"# ( = '(% li+e ~; ( such as ~' #_"#c9 EL$&A# I don't think 2nglish has a phrase like the con%enient Fdoomo.F

14.
V &K

In casual con%ersation, . &KAa& is often contracted to . &K. /%.6&K?Glease don't forget to bring )it* tomorrow, 98E V(causative)&A5&K,# Hiterally it means '3ould I not recei%e a fa%or of your letting me do ~E' It is a %ery polite re!uest for permission to do something. $59.#5 a=&A5&K,# Would you please let me take the e(am one day earlyE >> = '-he more/less ~% the more/less ~'

"he first part of this construction is a occur, K 6 is used.

#conditional form, and the second

part is a plain form of %erbs and & #ad$ecti%es. When noun # A or #ad$ecti%es

34N634N%m_% J&NI think that the more you study Japanese the more interesting you will find it. w^56&@6%ij( &"he more students there are )who apply*, the more difficult it is to be selected. &&yK 6 %t&Better restaurants are more e(pensi%e. 6 %&&5impler e(planations are better.

=0<&99K

"

 >&& /$ = 'other than ~; besides ~'

w+~<M[+, #,$&&g#_ % +t the beginning of the semester, there are so many things to buy besides te(tbooks. _9:,#w,#+9_ than that from the <inistry of 2ducation. N "here are other scholarships

(_>J&#5K& / 'It does not necessarily mean that...' (_ is often followed by an e(pression such as >J&#5K& . "his is a way of e(pressing that a certain e(pectation does not always hold. (_5T$%J&#5K =9It is not necessarily the case that one's Japanese impro%es once one goes to Japan. ( _ t & _ & & J & # 5 K & It is not necessarily the case that e(pensi%e things are good. (_k-9J#q+ )A*J&#5K necessarily the case that all Japanese like natto. = 9 It is not

= 'nothing but ~'

)I A * e(presses the idea that there are so much I that it appears as if only I e(ists.

~ < & J A When I went to Japan, in the beginning I had nothing but interesting e(periences. can also be used in combination with the #form of a %erb. . & % J 3 4 K + = 9 If you watch ". all the time, you can't study. %c / 'as ~ as possible'

A& %c$Aa&If possible, please hand in homework the ne(t day.

V (plain) c+ = 'should; ought to'

"his is a form deri%ed from the classical au(iliary %erb c . It follows the plain non#past form of %erbs and carries the meaning 'one should do ~.' When the %erb is N%, both Nc+ and N%c+ are used. "he negati%e form of c+ is . (plain c+K & rather than ;&c+A. 789:9;- 12.34N ) % * c+A If one wants to read Japanese newspapers, one should study kan$i. k&59_8c+A9ne should listen to the opinion of others.

1 .

c0$H>&I = 'not particularl ' $ is an ad%erb which is usually followed by a negati%e form and indicates that something is not particularly the case. ]^ 4 =9? #9KN <r. Brown, you don't look %ery well today. Is something wrongE 4&&@$K_ =9 >o, there is nothing particularly wrong. +4y#i&-ow is your Japanese classE JifficultE B4 ##9$ >ot particularly. In speech, the phrase which follows $ is often omitted.

> "his is a collo!uial form of >K,# meaning 'I wonder.' > is used only by male speakers in %ery informal situations. Women would use >.

99$% 0 I wonder what will b s v d for dinner today.

> can be used by women in monologues and also when it is followed by such e(pressions as J#.

= 'If I remember correctl ; if I am not mista+en'

When is used, the speaker is somewhat uncertain about the truth of his statement.

 DvFGKBk&#GFE DAJ&NIf I am recall correctly, the most populous state in the '.5. is 3alifornia.

Jo not confuse with $ 'certainly.' (3ertainly, I'm the one who was wrong.

$KN

. /K #<&A = '. is famous for /'

7 can be a noun or a noun phrase (i.e., a sentence D 0J . f&mKKN8yoto is famous for its old temples. k " K KN "he Japanese people are famous for working hard. $N% / 'to decide on >1 to ha%e0take >' C$,#Het's make it )the picnic* this 5aturday.

>"#A ("#$ = 'it seems that; it loo+s li+e ~'

> " # A e(presses one's con$ectures. It is attached to nouns, plain forms of &#ad$ecti%es and %erbs. kA k"#A (A ("#A & &"#A &"#A +4&K,#What's this white thingE B4 a "=9mJ#p"#KN?@ Well, I don't know for sure, but it looks like tofu.

#ad$ecti%es,

k&q+"#KNJapanese people seem to like white cars. ]^m&!&"#KN&0_ !59+#0$ &&N9ur teacher seems to be busy e%ery day. )-e0she* is always in )his0her* office.

10

 ,JX="#KN$+0"#"#p$+ 6%"#$It seems I'%e lost some weight. I am able to wear clothes which were too tight before. Both & and " # gi%e con$ectures. With " # , there is a sense that the con$ecture is based on the speaker's first#hand information such as one's direct obser%ation. &, on the other hand, bases its con$ectures more on what one heard. i"#A It seems that the e(am was difficult (said, for e(ample, by a teacher who has gi%en an e(am and obser%ed that the students were ha%ing difficulty finishing or were looking grim, etc. i& It seems that the e(am was difficult (suggests that the speaker has heard one of the students saying that the e(am was difficult. )>B "# >6* specifically e(presses the idea that >B looks0beha%es like >6. In the following e(amples, "# indicates that % a9 is really not a woman but looks0acts like a woman. & , on the other hand, indicates that % a9 is a typical woman & i.e. feminine. %a9&"# kKN<r. "anaka looks like a woman. %a9&&KN<s. "anaka is %ery feminine. 5imilarly, > " # $ , which is an ad%erbial form, e(presses the idea that someone0something acts0is like someone0something else. yya9k"#$TKN <r. 5mith speaks Japanese like a nati%e speaker.

a@ = 'even'

a @ most normally follows a noun (or a sentence D J , focusing on the most unusual or least e(pected case. ' a @ [ 5 & k ( & K , # "here probably are %ery few people who can't e%en write their own names. ) +059w^ ?% U * a@ =9 5tudents are so busy before final e(ams that they don't e%en ha%e time to sleep. J+ ++"#$, 0&a@ N5ome days, it's e%en as hot as summer.

+ , ?j6&Ja@ N It's so hot in the summer in Japan that ther are e%en times you can't sleep.

11

 &0$ = 'before one +no's it; before one reali0es'

m&0$ &<oney is gone before you know it. >$6% / 'be used to1 be accustomed to' "his phrase follows a noun directly or a sentence followed by . ^-$6+I ha%e become used to the Japanese way of life. kK_ . 5&. / #$6&&kmm`&&N 2%en among the Japanese, there are many people who are not used to using honorifics.

> % When % and are used with %erbs which e(press change, process, transition, etc. they indicate how a certain change relates to the speaker in time. >% indicates that a certain change has been taking place up to now, and > & indicates that a change will continue to take place from now on. A&:0 =%"#$+ I ha%e come to be able to speak Japanese 12 b . ^ - 99 3 &K,# 9ur life style will continue to change rapidly.

>5K& = 'It does not mean that...; it does not follo' that...'

>5K & negates what one would generally conclude from pre%ious statements or situations.

L. 0 =9LK+&5 K =9 )I* don't speak 2nglish much, but that does not mean that )I* can't speak it. V&K 4 Nj . & K (negati%e #form without doing .. followed by 4 j means that one manages or gets by

5 yNWK 6&K4 -"he bus came right away, and so I did not ha%e to wait too long.

12

 . 7 &K 4 jJ&&KN? It will be nice if we don't ha%e to cook e%ery day, don't you thinkE

V/1djective (stem) N% = 'too ~; do something too much' bc% bcN%1 N% N%1 t& tN%1 ( (N% b c N % J m & N " If you eat too much, you will get a stomachache.

>T&,# = 'more than ~'

Bw$899&T:J% J3&9AJ&NI think it will be hard to carry more than fifteen credits a semester.

1!.

>$0 = 'to notice ~' "his e(pression can be used either with a noun or a phrase (sentence D or J . *<&$0+=9KI wasn't aware of my mistake. A&.6J$0& yAIt was after the class started that I noticed that I had forgotten my homework.

= indicates that something has been done with a great deal of trouble, that someone has spent a great deal of time to reach a certain state.

k=76.bc&06&AIt's impolite not to eat food which someone has taken the trouble of preparing for you. = = 1 2 6 & "# $ ,# Glease try not to forget kan$i, which you ha%e spent considerable time and energy to learn.

>5$&&

13

). (plain, non#past, affirmati%e 5 $ & & * means that one cannot do certain things for social0moral0situational reasons. >?DvFG K.0N5$&+=9We can't %ery well speak Japanese at a normal +merican party. 6]^A $ @ N5$&+=9 5ince this is my teacher's book, I can't %ery well lend it to you.

When the negati%e form is used with 5$&& , the meaning is affirmati%e & i.e., it has the sense of 'can't help but do ~.' 9ne does not ha%e any other choice. 59 % 9934c9+,#&5$&+ =9 5ince I ha%e an e(am tomorrow, I cannot help but study tonight.

!#J "his phrase is used to !ualify the preceding statement. It is often followed by > 5$&&, >5K&, etc. +4AbR(&?@Jormitory food is bad, B4 #9K_!#Jbc&5$_&& 7es, but we still ha%e to eat, so...

V (past) TK = 'upon V)ing; after V)ing' !m 0 BC ,#9J D E !#A9TKm F R9N 9n that matter, I will reply after I ha%e consulted with my parents.

d & = 0 J " G @ T K H + < h & & K , # 7ou should decide important matters after considering them carefully. <$ = 'in order to' ). (plain, non#past I are <$* indicates a purpose for one's action.

!:<$D5J.N%w^_&!#A I hear that these days there

14

many students who work part#time so that they ha%e money for fun. KLM . 3 @_#<$]^ ! 59+ #0 3arol went to her teacher's office in order to ask him to change an e(am date.

When < is followed by , the phrase modifies a following noun. HH N . 8 < X K N + language lab is a room for listening to tapes.

>_

).0+d$ ( #form ~.'

D _ * means that 'e%en when one does ~' or 'e%en if one does

With the sense of 'e%en when0if,' the main sentence is usually in the non#past. >ouns and #ad$ecti%es can take the form of >K K _ (e.g. (K _w^

_ , but they are usually contracted to >K_ (e.g. (K_w^K_ . $O$0&34m5 _GPLzQR5&K ,# If you study Japanese culture before you go to Japan, you won't ha%e culture shock e%en when you go there.

>( ( is a negati%e form in classical Japanese. "he modern e!ui%alent is & . "he form ( often appears in contemporary Japanese (especially in written style . ( is used between clauses with the sense of 0 &K , or in the form ($ with the sense of 'without doing such and such.' .erbs con$ugate with ( in the same manner as with & (e.g., ;j ;& ;( , @N @a& @a( , % & ( the e(ception of =( for N%. ($34N%J S $ %K,# If you study without sleeping, you will get sick. 2ausative)passive3 ga6% = 'be made to bu ' with

"his is a shortened %ariation of a causati%e#passi%e form g=6% . =6% is often contracted to a6% , unless the resulting form duplicates a . (e.g., 0a= 6% is not contracted to ;0aa6%. &&w$B0 T .[a6% In general, we are made to write at least one paper a semester.

U & * 6 a 6 % A 6 K _ & X A >obody likes to be kept waiting for a long time.

>$"%J = 'according to ~'

"his e(pressing is used to indicate a source of information and is generally followed by an e(pression such as ). (plain !#A* indicating hearsay.

V W " # $ " % J X Y Z - p % ! # A +ccording to the weather forecast, it will rain this afternoon.

)5B (plain 56* is used to state that a certain thing (or person, situation, etc. has both good and bad aspects. It has the sense that one compensates for the other. y Q [\ a j& + ] N(& Wisconsin is cold in winter but cool in summer ^_&m%>ew 7ork is interesting but e(pensi%e. &9> / '9nce you do something, ...' OP&96X<a=6%J&J6&% It is said that once you are employed by a Japanese company, you won't be fired. When the sentence e(presses a negati%e conse!uence, &9>J is preferred. & 9 3 4 . X < % J N W 6 # K , # 9nce you stop studying Japanese, you will forget it !uickly.

>$J = 'for ~; to ~' k$J>?p0# JK_`k$J39$@%J_&A# "here are

1!

probably lots foreigner.

of

things

which

seem

normal

to

Japanese

but

strange

to

w^$JkJ a 0+ b & B cd #"#JA =or Japanese college students, friendship is the most important thing.

1".
>

In Japanese, it is %ery important to distinguish the information you obtain through secondary sources (what you ha%e heard or read from what you know firsthand. When one does not ha%e firsthand knowledge of what one is saying, reporti%e e(pressions like , (plain form the like should be used. !#KNJ&&KN or

ef [ \ &9A?@ I hear winter in "okyo is not too cold )is that rightE* 5L.M@%D 5J a9 %8+ I heard that there are lots of part#time $obs teaching 2nglish once you get to Japan.

>JH>I

).0+d$ J .0+d$* is generally used to !ualify one's statement, with the meaning 'it is the case that ..., but ...' If one is talking of a past fact, the second .0+d$ is put in the past tense. #ad$ecti%e4 (J(KN &#ad$ecti%e4 \&Jaj&KN .erb4 bc%JbcN f9J&#gh&J&, JUN% "he mo%ie called FKanF is interesting, but it's a little too long. t^34N%JNw$#59<34 KN' & 5 9 . 7 % < $ i X $ j & & " # K N Japanese high school students do study a lot, but since all they do is study for entrance e(aminations, it does not seem to contribute to forming their own opinions.

1"

 7a:9. [J[&*<&A#J#Jk( & I did write a composition, but I am sure there were lots of mistakes, and I feel embarrassed. K&&KN / (K5#KN = '( 'ill do; ( 'ill suffice'

l[BmK&&K,#Would one dictionary doE mnK5#KN)Lreen* tea would be fine. > J o & / 'it is not necessarily the case that ~1 it does not mean that ~' .34&%w^-9J o & It's not necessarily the case that students who are studying Japanese will all be going to Japan. "his e(pression is often used with an ad%erb (_. t&_(_-9"&Jo&2(pensi%e things are not necessarily good. >O "his suffi( attaches mainly to kan$i compounds and e(presses the idea of >$% or >$N%. pY =9 (&:9 q"O =&"# 5ince the war, Japan has become !uite westerni:ed. gh @& O a6 r , #=0& "here are many no%els which ha%e been made into mo%ies.

>U / >$ />

J = ''hen ~ / before ~ / after ~'

"he %erb which precedes $ is always in the non#past tense form. 3ontrast this with

). (past

J * 'after ..' In general, when an action %erb occurs in clauses

such as U , $ , J , etc., the past tense form indicates that an embedded action will occur (or occurred before the main action. "he non#past tense form indicates that an embedded action will occur (or occurred either simultaneously with or after the main action. l [Ug& I bought this dictionary when I went to Japan )i.e., while I was in Japan*. l [Ug& I bought this dictionary when I went to Japan )before or on the way to Japan*.

1#

 l [Ug&N +s for a dictionary, I will buy it when I get to Japan after I get to Japan*.

& counter _ = 'man

~'

C_J

NI ha%e been to Japan many times. 9_ N "here are many 3hinese

s#,#X9t5 restaurants.

cf. m a 0 _ 'do:ens of %olumes (lit., tens of %olumes ' B D counter _ D negati%e 'not e%en one' uv 9X.N%k l [. m _/&%! #KN I hear people who translate ha%e do:ens of dictionaries. JBC_ =9I ha%e not been to Japan, e%en once.

>>JH wx 9 y &I = ''orried 'hether ~ or ~'

P N . z $"# z $"#J wx && 9ne does not ha%e to worry whether to lea%e a BAM tip or a BCM tip. mN$ "#{$"#J|" I had trouble making up my mind whether to ha%e sushi or tempura.

>K&A# >K&K,# > K& ) 'I think it might be the case that ~' "his is a less asserti%e, more indirect way of e(pressing one's opinion. By saying _J }~ =9K9a6_ & & K &A # , the speaker0writer thinks that it should be publici:ed more. K&A # is used here because the speaker0writer does not want to put forth this opinion too strongly. In collo!uial speech, contracted to 9&. K& is

"his e(pression generally follows a sentence in plain form (e.g., K&A # , &K&A# , d 0"#&K&A# , but nouns and #

19

ad$ecti%es, in their affirmati%e non#past#tense form, occur as =#9K &A# or 8 99 K&A#.

y &U P N . _&&K&K,# I wonder if it's all right )I think it's all right* not to lea%e a tip when ser%ice is bad. V "X.&&J6&K&A# I fear we won't be able to get in unless we make a reser%ation in ad%ance.

> K&A# can be followed by J# wx N% . In such cases, it takes a shortened form K&. a &+9K+% ` k_ p@+&%K&J&N I think the number of foreigners who can speak Japanese has increased recently.

j = 'rather'

j is used when, of two alternati%es, one is more ~ than the other1 one is preferable to the other1 one fits the description better than the other, etc. _"DvFGK.34DvFGkhj.5& / & h ." &% K &A # I wonder if it might be the case that +mericans who study Japanese in +merica, rather than the Japanese youth, are better able to use honorifics. +`[`"jm $&.05Aa&+ summer cold is e%en harder to get rid of than a winter cold, so take care. 9ften, when j is used, there is a certain general or conte(tual e(pectation that the opposite is true.

1. V

(plain) "#$N%

V (plain) "#$N%

20

means 'to make an effort to do something' or 'to make a point of doing something.' 34N%" #$Aa&Glease try to study Japanese e%ery day.

I !: m D 5J K = W" #$ & N I make a point of earning my spending money by working part time.

2. V

(stem) <% = 'begin V)ing'

yF;-<%J<6=97ou can't stop reading a mystery no%el once you start reading )it*. ). (stem m%* indicates 'finish .#ing.'

XU$XJT9:9. [+ I finally finished writing a paper at ? a.m.

3. !"

V(stem) !#

"he stem of a .# N form (e.g., tabe, tsukuri, iki can be used in place of .# form to connect two sentences. "his use is generally restricted to written style. X+#T,#(=9. 0<P|.7DvFGzP|Jb &. "hey formed a team by gathering good baseball players and played games with the +merican team.

P|#@9$ 0*v.N%+ number of teams gather together at 8oshien for a two#week tournament.

21

4. ,uestion

'ord & >_

Nuestion words (&0A6C etc. followed by #forms followed by _ indicate 'no matter what0when0who0where0how often,' etc. .bc_ pJ &k#X&KN I en%y people who ne%er get fat no matter what they eat. ef_kK 9 K&N "okyo is crowded with people no matter where you go.

5. >.<

= 'starting 'ith ~; including ~; not to mention ~'

"his phrase introduces the most ob%ious e(ample, as in the following e(amples. DvFGKE.<5yDJyy_a 9KNIn +merica, sports such as basketball and ice hockey, not to mention football, are popular. a +^ ,#_9.<k$9aj& f9 h <& 9JK % +kira 8urosawa is the director of many famous mo%ies such as Seven Samurai and Ran, not to mention Rashomon.

6. >

= '~t pe; ~ic; ~ical'

22

> is a suffi( which attaches to nouns (mostly kan$i compoundsA and forms # ad$ecti%es. > $ is an ad%erbial form. Its meaning %aries depending on the words, but in )I 7 * it often indicates that I has a characteristic !uality of 7 or I has something to do with 7. m - X 5 J # J $ r + _ J = 9 N A # + typical Japanese sou%enir might be a kimono or a fan. $,#O 0 &K KNN. / #J & ,=& $8@%& It seems that speaking in the desu/masu style in casual situations sounds feminine. a&+9K`K_{.45&& $/m#J&%In recent years, e%ery country is making an attempt to use energy efficiently )economically*.

7. J_

= 'undeniabl ; no doubt; b

an

account'

gh@&9J K_J_#<&J_ a +A # "he most famous mo%ie director in Japan by any account must be +kira 8urosawa.

4`5&&& $6J_DvFGm-A# >o doubt it was thanks to +merica that Japan became and economic power.

8. &J$ 23

) & D J$ * introduces the content of what is interesting in the remainder of the sentence. +ny ad$ecti%e or %erb which e(presses a speaker's emotional response can be similarly used.

m &J$DvFGwK]^w^.Exyz{|K}"9K &%A "o my surprise, teachers call students by their first names at +merican uni%ersities. &J$=&+ B$K#<&7Sa-9& ,=& K Interestingly, famous writers in tenth and ele%enth century Japan were all women.

. /&KN ='/ is about the ..' k9 K+%w^U&_6& 3ollege years might be the only time when the Japanese can rela(. Mm @5&59DK$.M@&KN+bout the only teaching e(perience )I ha%e* is teaching Japanese to children as a %olunteer.

24

 X y = 'as e*pected; also; again'

X y is a con%ersational form of X . It is an ad%erb which indicates that what is being said is what is e(pected from our general or specific knowledge. R z { S=&A m J#J_X S$ John 8ennedy was a politician. -is brothers also became politicians. 12&KNX y m %$U *N 8an$i are interesting, but )as might be e(pected* they take a long time to learn.

>a@> = 'if onl

ou ~'

"his e(pression states a sufficient condition for attaining a desired result. a @ can be attached to a noun, a %erb stem and the #form of a %erb, as in the following4 >a@.(#form 4 Na@< .(stem a@N64 N.-a@N6 .(#form a@&64 N.9Ka@&6 Garticles , ., and _ are dropped when a@ is attached, but other particles are retained as in y$a@6. is a conditional form. # 9#a@N6 S ,#+$=9 If you don't want to get sick, all you ha%e to do is e(ercise. ?a @N6mNIf you only sleep, you will get better. y$.Ja@&6A&,#:KN If you only attend classes and take notes, you will do fine.

In some cases, there is a choice between > a @ . or . a @ N 6 as in the following e(amples4 Na@<mN N.-a@N6 N If only you would take your medicine, you would get better. When a @ is attached to a noun, a @ emphasi:es that noun. -ence the first e(ample abo%e implies that one only has to take medicine and no other substance. "he second e(ample, on the other hand, emphasi:es the action of taking medicine as opposed to other actions such as sleeping, listening to music, etc.

>(

> ( , which means 'supposed to,' 'e(pected to,' e(presses one's con$ecture with some certainty. It follows noun D , #ad$ecti%e , and plain forms of %erbs and &#ad$ecti%es. A 9#-(KNIt's 5unday today, and so banks are supposed to be closed. $uN9K&T(KN -is Japanese should be good since he li%ed in Japan. '&(KNIf it's a used one, it should be cheap. $6789:9;<%(KN 5tudents who are in "hird 7ear Japanese should be able to read newspapers in Japanese. >- & - & is a collo!uial form of " # A . 'nlike " # A , - & follows bare nouns (e.g. k-& and #ad$ecti%e stem (e.g. $X-& . Hike "#A , it follows plainforms of &#ad$ecti%es and %erb (e.g. '&-&1 -& . 9t&_.ga6-& I feel stupid being forced into buying an e(pensi%e thing like this. QR&-&A?It seems difficult to find a $ob.

2!

 59N%-&"It looks like )he* is going to get married ne(t year.

>J = 'as ~'

LM+,#JDvFGk @&%"#AIt seems that the number of +mericans who go to Japan as 2nglish teachers is increasing e%ery year. PR |y K w J"_ =& K _6& 3homsky is perhaps more famous for his political acti%ities than as a linguist. ><H$I / 'because (of 1 due to' > < H $ I follows a noun D , #ad$ecti%e #form and plain forms of & # ad$ecti%es and %erbs. It indicates the reason or cause for the following clause. >< is a formal e(pression, and hence is used in writing or in formal situations. m m +<E J KL z a6 "he flight was cancelled because of hea%y snow. 12p0@%$U *% 8an$i take a long time to learn because of their comple(ity. > < H $ I also indicates a purpose for an action. Whether < H $ I is interpreted as a FpurposeF or FreasonF partly depends on the conte(t. -owe%er, if <H$I follows an ad$ecti%e or a %erb which indicates a state such as % , K+% , % , etc., it always indicates a Freason.F (Gast#tense forms, too, always indicate reasons. . 3 4 N % < H $ I -e went to Japan in order to study Japanese. . 3 4 < H $ I -e went to Japan because he studied Japanese.

2"

1.

."Qh& = 'to have no choice but to ~'

"his e(pression means that I is not what one normally wants to do but one has no choice but to do it. m&UD5J.N%"Qh& When you ha%e no money, you don't ha%e any choice but to work part#time. & & " Q h & 5ince I don't ha%e a car, I ha%e no alternati%e but to go on foot.

2. V6% /

6%

"he .6%06% form, which is homophonous to the passi%e form, may be used as .! 95& (honorific form , as in the following e(amples.

]^.[6!#KN&0 y 9 V "&K,# Grofessor, I hear you ha%e written a book. When is it scheduled to be publishedE ] ^ D v F G 6 J ( & : 9 < & 9 K , # ? O"alking to a professorP When you came to +merica, things were %ery different from what they are now, weren't theyE

"his form is not as polite as regular honorific forms such as m>$%& %, etc., but it is widely used especially in men's speech, newspapers, and other formal writings. "here is no >6%06% forms for %erbs such as %K+%.

2#

3. =<H>I =

'at least'

12.a9=&&U*&K=<M 12+,#&9;-[+K+%"# $ & I want to learn lots of kan$i, but I don't ha%e much time. I would like to be able to read and write at least 8yoiku 8an$i, though. =<BC-&J#k&A# "here must be lots of people who would like to %isit Japan at least once. =<BU*W&.34_&&_A I would like )them* to spend at least one hour e%ery night studying Japanese. mJ$ =<m &W&_&&J# p &A# "here must be many wi%es who want their husbands to wash dishes, at least. "his e(pression is used only when there is an implication that more of

something is desirable. "he use of &0W& makes the statement less specific in the sense that the speaker gi%es an item or number $ust as an e(ample.

4. .

"#$ / = '4o / so that .'; '4o / in such a 'a

that . happens'

29

In this construction, I often contains a potential %erb, negati%e form or stati%e %erb, which normally can't be controlled by one's will. +lthough I can be any plain non#past %erb, it is most commonly used with potential %erb forms. ; < % " # $ 2 . + 6 & $ [ & a & 5o that I can read it, please write characters neatly. -9 <%" #$PR. can all en$oy it. 5 I ga%e )them* chocolate so that they

6&"#$[&m&Aa&Glease write it down so that you won't forget. 5%"#$m.<&NI am sa%ing money so that I can go to Japan.

5.

> > $ @ % H 5 & " # & adverbial form $ % I = 'seems...; appears...'

% a9 $ @N? 2%en though <rs. 7amada is QA years old, she looks young. ~K9J#+ O.&`9#+$aj&*:+$ -@%A# =or foreign tourists that don't know about traditional Japanese culture, samurai must seem strange. &0_$@%)-e* always seems to be in good health.

30

@% 6%

With@ %someone or something is ssv 1s 2 2s1 vsb1 regardless of the %olition of the speaker. "hus, it is different from the regular potential form of % (which is 6% . 6%indicates that the speaker s v 1 . ! 9@N 3an you see the blackboard from o%er there (can it be seen o%er there E K!gh6NWhere are you able to see that mo%ieE @&<y friend is blind. .g DvE6% Because I bought a "., I am )now* able to watch +merican football.

6. !
! is a particle which emphasi:es a word, phrase, or clause. replaces D ( D !in particular ! generally

._, but is attached to other particles, as in >!>K!, etc.

+4 #_N-=9I'm sorry. B4 &&@!>o, it's <2 who should say sorry.

31

 !+NI will go to Japan ne(t year definitely. !c+KN""onga is the place you shouldn't miss. ! a& kA -e is the %ery k we ha%e been looking for. (te#form !only if0when -9 K 5 b !&& NM K+%9K,# 9nly if (when helps each other will a good pro$ect be possible. e%eryone

!T$%9A# 9nly if0when you go to will you become good at Japanese.

JK X !34$ %9A /ou can learn something onl ourself. 2ause/reason clause ! It is precisel because

'hen

ou do it b

A!_J = 69#56&5& It is precisely because )I'm* good that I need to practice more. !__9A

K +&! k"a93456&9A It is precisely because I can't do it that I ha%e to study more than other people.

32

7. .

J_ / = 'It is true that .% but /; 1lthough I said .% /'

+ phrase that is used to clarify a statement in the preceding discourse which might be misleading. J_ follows plain forms, but a copula A is generally omitted. In this e(pression, 7 is gi%en to !ualify I. J _ D KNJ_5yK _N5? <y apartment is close and con%enient. +lthough it's con%enient, it still takes as much as 6A minutes by bus. +4 #A%C 9=+9A-ikaru 'tada is your relati%eE 4 #9K_ C J_ Jm& C 9A 7es, she is a relati%e, but she is a distant relati%e.

5lain forms of ( copula) J&_

.7& $ #9 " J_ _5? I traded my used car for a new one. +lthough I said I traded it, I did pay RBA,AAA. Q^&KN?&J_ KN5?Bush is young, isn't heE It is true that he is young, but he is CA years old. \ &J_ -(#- m% J lakes ne%er free:e. =9 +lthough I said it's cold, the

33

8. A>A5

= 1n adverb 'hich s s the idea of 6just% onl .6

A A5HI

A 8 9A5@_ ` T $=9 If you only learn %ocabulary, you won't become good at a foreign language. A m R G @ & & k N )Geople* who think only of money are annoying. A%erbA5HI J AB$MO+,#&A5KN kJ&#5&KN" I only went with him to church. "hat doesn't mean that he's my boyfriend. $ R K & 9 K N A , J 8 & - A 5 K N It isn't a particularly important thing. I only want to try to hear it a little.

9. 9
Hw^&

H I K_ = 'no matter 'hat ('ho% 'here) it ma

be '9k

IK_ 9JH_ IK_ 9HIK_ 9K_

9 K_u<-XA>o matter where it may be, there is no place like home. 0 +ny place is home once you li%e there. 9 +=0K_q+A I like all seasons (no matter what season it is, I like it . 5 J J $_PR9 PR K_ J J $mF . N%c+A >o matter what kind of chocolates you recei%e on .alentines Jay, you should gi%e a return gift on White Jay.

34

 1 0

1.

:9N# (fraction)

(fraction in

is e(pressed in Japanese by )(number (number *. >otice that

Japanese, a denominator comes before a numerator, as in B (/B0C , (/60? , etc.

2. !entence

)5B 56* means '56 to the e(tent 5B,' or 'it is so 56 that 5B.' 5B is generally in plain forms. J G-A%&J that it brings tears to your eyes. % 5ometimes, Indian curry is so hot

#5&m&y&KNI am so full that I can't mo%e. efN%k&"okyo has an ama:ingly large number of people. "his construction can be paraphrased to )56(#form , 5BKN*, as below. JG -AK%KN

3. "_

= 'more than an thing'

"_&KN?@Kight now, I want a car more than anything. "_59#BKN-ealth is the most important thing in the world.

4. (. )/$ o %
7 in this construction can be either a noun or a %erb in non#past plain form. "his construction means '+s for I, 7 is the best thing to do1 +s for I, there is nothing better than 7.' , 0&$ 0< &.j$ o % Jrinking cold beer is the best thing to do on a hot day. & . ?56f $N If you want to %isit an old city, 8yoto is the best place.

5. >

is attached to nouns, ad$ecti%es and %erbs, and indicates that the condition0situation (described in the attached to #clause is unchanged. It can be

> , #ad$ecti%e , &#ad$ecti%e in plain non-past tense form and %erb in plain past tense form. f $ j m X P 9 & "here are many old temples and shrines in 8yoto. 0<&9K_m &&Japanese rice wine tastes good e%en cold. . 5?%J`. If you go to sleep with the window open, you will catch cold. #!&A a&Glease come as you are. km.Fa &"& It's not good not to return the money one has borrowed from other people.

3!

 1 1 >_9KN /_KN = 'because ~' "his pattern is used to present a reason for a situation. It is often used to gi%e a reason for a situation where the speaker feels sorry for what happened, but where the conse!uence was una%oidable because of the reason he0she gi%es. ]^#9KN (&:9m!&KN?What happenedE 7ou are late, w ^N-=95"#JJ$S0_KN I am sorry. It's because my parents called me $ust when I was about to lea%e the home. w^H&I#_6" What happenedE I'%e been waiting for half an hourE w^HI<9<9K-_N9 K&_9A 5orry, I came by car but the traffic was incredibly hea%y )so I couldn't help being late*.

>#$

"here are two kinds of >#$. When #$ is preceded by nouns, ad$ecti%es and %erbs (stati%e or in progressi%e form , it e(presses the sense of 'while a certain situation holds'. w^#$,#. h&&9ne should tra%el while still a student. (#$34.m#I will get my study done while it is still !uiet. &#$ ' &J.mJ&& 7ou should do what you want to do while you are still young. $&%#$BC pa9$&J&NI would like to climb <t. =u$i while I am in Japan. 0&%#$U* "ime flew by while we were talking. When # $ is preceded by a negati%e %erb form, it e(presses the meaning of 'before something happens.' m! &#$h&&K,# 7ou should go home before it gets too late.

3"

 $ 6 & # $ A & . N I will do my homework before my mother scolds me.

.$% = '~ 'eighs on one's mind; to be concerned about ~'

In this construction, I can be either a noun or a sentence nominali:ed by attaching . $NI am worried about my grade)s*. |yJw^S-B ?&0#_&$NI am bothered by the fact that my host student's family has not e%en written a single letter to me.

#_ "his phrase can be used with either a negati%e or affirmati%e predicate. In a negati%e sentence, it means 'can't do )it* no matter how hard one tries.' In an affirmati%e sentence, it has the sense of 'by all means'. #_&U]^$8&Aa& When you don't understand no matter how hard you try, please ask your teacher. #! #_@=9I can't tell a lie no matter what. #_BC-&I would like to go to Japan once, no matter what. 0& / 'inad%ertently1 in%oluntarily'

3#

 &5&J0&$K%J should not say.

%5ometimes, we accidentally say things we

0.&0&U*.6I was talking and lost track of time.

>$.05% = 'to pa

attention to ~; to be careful of ~'

. 0 NUD z $.05Aa& When you speak Japanese, please watch for pitch patterns. +4 B4#97es +4.05? Well, take care, is used in many idiomatic e(pressions in Japanese. "he following are some of the e(pressions containing . y05o, you are lea%ing tomorrowE

>$0 = 'to reali0e; to notice' !"5&9$# on the bulletin board. %y$0+=9KI didn't notice the poster

m.$mJ$0&SKIt was after I got home that I reali:ed that I had lost my money.

% & 1 ' ( $% = 'to bring oneself to do V; to feel li+e V)ing'

34N%$=9I don't feel like studying on =riday nights.

39

 X%$6K_K+N7ou can do anything if you put your mind to it. / 'to go out of one's way to do something' 5% 3 &9A 0 K 0 !# It's not easy to take the time to go, so I will talk on the phone. w^7[+)h&&K,#Jo you think I should rewrite this compositionE ]^[+)a_&&9& KN I don't think you ha%e to take the trouble to rewrite it.

>"#$m * ?&N% = 'to as+ 7someone8 to do 7something8' >"# $# = 'to as+ 7someone8 to do 7something8' >"#$ + j = 'to as+ 7someone8 to do 7something8'

"#$ in this construction indicates that it is an indirect !uote of a command or are!uest. ). (plain, non#past "#$# * is e!ui%alent to a sentence with a direct !uote such as ).#Aa&J#* or ).a&J#*. ]^$,-.N&=9,#. ["#$m*&I asked my teacher to write a letter of recommendation. m a9$QR .&w&"#$/#&a6<y host mother ad%ised me not to go to school wearing shorts. "% BUK$%"#$6I was told to come home by BB p.m.

40

 V (volitional) J = ''hen I 'as about to V'

# J Z - p + When I was about to lea%e for the department store, it began to rain. 0 K 0 .8& 0 !#J 1 -A+ When I heard his %oice and tried to talk, tears came to my eyes.

(. )/&A = '.% to the e*tent /'

&, like , indicates the degree or e(tent of a situation, which is often e(pressed in I (or I K . 7 can be a #ad$ecti%e (e.g., T&KN , an & # ad$ecti%e (e.g., &&&KN or a %erb (e.g., &KN .

DvFG$(Ju9K&%KLh"T&KN -e has li%ed in +merica so long that his 2nglish is almost better than his Japanese. !#a9 2 `9:bc6&&K "here was so much food that we almost could not eat it all. k 9<&;-ha9 k$_i&&KN"here are so many ways of reading Japanese names that they are e%en difficult for Japanese. "he & phrase can precede the situation it is describing, as in )7 & I*. "he meaning, howe%er, is the same as )I7&A*. ;-r & %&ij(&KN"his reading passage is so difficult that )to the e(tent that* I almost get a headache. J++@ && Z -%J % "here are times when it rains so hard that you can hardly see anything in front of you.

41

 V (plain past) _A = 'used to V'

). (plain, past _ A * is used to e(press something one used to do in the past, to reminisce about the past. " mJ#JJ59._A I used to fight with my brother a lot when I was a child. wU"I college days. . (stem and means !"34_AI used to play hard and study hard in my

+ suffi( attached to a limited number of %erbs (stem of N#form that something was just done. 3X+ m&&Bread fresh from the o%en is delicious.

VK$.05Aa&Glease watch out for wet paint. .

1 4 $>& = 'not much; not enough'

"his e(pression is always followed by a negati%e form of a predicate. $34_&$5_9 #%It's not good to complain without studying much. SU $bc6&When you are sick, you can hardly eat anything.

42

 >= / 'perhaps because' = &, without , gi%es a reason or a cause. w^ K+&]^=&A# Is it because of the teacher that students don't do wellE '*<&.k$9=& $N%% It's not good to blame others for your own mistakes. !6 =&A"It's $ust your imagination. )5B = & , 56* gi%es a possible reason for some undesirable situation in 56, meaning 'Gerhaps because 5B, 56 holds.' 59%=&& )-e* looks dispirited, perhaps because he did badly on the e(am. )+0 &=&-&"here are many absences, perhaps because the final e(am is near. =& is a noun. 5o, it is preceded by >, #ad$ecti%e , or plain forms of &# ad$ecti%es and %erbs. When 56 represents a desirable situation, m - K is used as below. ]^$.M@ &A&m-K$90=%"#$"hanks to your teaching, I ha%e become able to speak Japanese.

V9a& = 'tr

V)ing'

"his is a polite form of . - a & . 5ince > a & is a form used by someone higher in status to gi%e a command to someone lower in status, >9a& cannot be used by a person lower in status. . 9 (e.g., 9 %ariant of is a more informal

.9a&, and is used, for e(ample, by mothers in talking to children. ( 9K9a&+J $ N" Lo and rest for a while. I'm sure you will feel better.

43

 >W& >W&, in this case, indicates that > is the minimum le%el, degree, etc. (e.g., easiest, lightest, etc. W& is often replaced by &. m&&Uy N W&$h&&K ,# When you ha%e a stomachache, you should limit your diet to something light like soup. BK = 12W&[5&J N 7ou should be able to write at least the kan$i you learned in the first year. >$6J& / 'nothing can be better than ~' "his e(pression is most fre!uently used with non#past plain forms of %erbs. S U?% 6J& When you are sick, sleeping is the best thing to do. 0=%"#$$ 6J&J#56(DvFGK 9 J34h&&J#&NIf you want to become proficient in Japanese, the best thing is to go to Japan, but I think you should first study properly )i.e., the basics* in +merica. #"#$ / 'as one wishes' QR#"#$ 7 &_A Work generally does not get done as !uickly as one wishes. +4T 9:9#KN7&N-ow is the thesis coming alongE Is it progressing wellE B4#"#$[5&N I'm really troubled because I can't write it to my satisfaction.

> = 'to tend to ~; to be apt to ~; to be prone to ~'

"his suffi( follows certain %erbs (stems of N #forms and nouns, and e(presses the idea that one tends to do something, something is more likely to happen, etc. It is negati%e in its implication. (0=_;-[+28`9`9K+& J&#`kb & JA It is not unusual that a foreigner who can speak Japanese a little can't read or write it at all.

44

 DvFGK in +merica.

9 @9,$&h&& It is better not to be too modest

1 /(

> 0 is often used in informal con%ersations to indicate the topic of a sentence. 3ompared with a #marked topic, ~0 gi%es a sense of surprise, disbelief, reproach, or the like. # 5 _9#" <y mother complains all the time )and I feel frustrated*. k9J&#"-e said this. )3an you belie%e itE* " : / 'considerably1 really1 to a great e(tent' ": is a collo!uial form of ", which indicates that something is of a degree considerably greater than usual. >? p 0#DvFGkw]^" ; %J&%"#A <ost +mericans seem to think that uni%ersity professors ha%e a great deal of free time. A ,#bR" : (&& It seems that the dormitory food is really bad.

 >$ < && = 'it must be ~'

It follows nouns, stem forms of and%erbs.

#ad$ecti%es, plain forms of

& #ad$ecti%es

9+S$u9K&%9A" : ^-=&0.&%$<&& 5ince he li%es in a big house like that, he must be really well#off. !Kml<.&%k$<&&"he person who is bowing o%er there must be a Japanese. = ` 9k$JXa&$&& Japanese must be easy for 8oreans to learn. &^->pc9$ &&It must be incon%enient to li%e without electricity.

aNH$I = 'indeed; as ma

be e*pected'

aNH$I gi%es a connotation that the speaker is fa%orably impressed with the state. It is preceded by )5entence D A5 *. $_u9K&A5 aNTA5ince he has li%ed in Japan for ten years, he speaks e(cellent Japanese indeed. m = 2 # ] ^ A 5 a N $ N & 2 A -e is an e(cellent calligrapher, as may be e(pected of someone who teaches calligraphy.

4!

 9 /(9

Both 9 and 9 can follow a noun, with the meaning of 'things (or people like ~.' 9nly 9 , howe%er, can follow a sentence. 9 is a contraction of many forms such as JJ&# or the like. , 9H9Iij(&J I thought things like particles were difficult. J # < #9 H ? J&#Ia y I didn't understand at all things like how watashi wa and watashi ga differ. .5&./&J06&$ %9H?JI6wx9y& 5ince I was told that it would be impolite if I don't use keigo, I was worried.

!" _ !# = 'although !"% !#'

_ is a con$unction meaning Falthough,F and tends to be used in writing. It is similar to and 56_. _$ _@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ ~_KN "he speaker presents some situation as if it is a tangible ob$ect. Fbecause1 how could...,1 used to...1 shouldF 5GR._Ahow could you do such a foolish thing.

4"

Glain form o f & # an d _ J#A$&&_A6_bc&+lthough natto is good for you Bc!#+&_?A9C+ <t &2%en though this summer cottage is not big, it is %ery e(pensi%e. U * _34_ D 9 : _ E - J<6 +lthough I studied fi%e hours e%ery day, I didn't notice any progress at all.

_ w^K %_ w ^K&_ w^A_ w^K_ _ (or K % _ K &_ A_ K_ ~$personal in%ol%ement, emoti%e o%ertone

Bh : #K ( )= 'on one hand; on the other hand' It is often used in a phrase Bh : # K ~ h # K ~. -owe%er, one of the two, phrases is often omitted. &,=&( ?9?9@&%BhKcd#"#y$0 & &%& +<(&"he number of working women is increasing e%ery year, but, on the other hand, women who hold important posts are !uite few in number. FGH$c&95&BhKI*-99 JOK:9##a9A h K L M N O # @ + a 0 + P _ 9 A & J & % +s for '.5.#Japan relations, while, on one hand, cultural e(change in the pri%ate domain is !uite popular, on the other hand, trade friction is a big problem.

4#

 "#$ = 'almost ever

da '

It means that it appears like e%eryday, although it is not actually e%ery day. can be replaced by , Q, , R, U*, etc. K9"#$s#,#.b c!#AI hear 8eene ate 3hinese food almost e%ery day. yK U*"#$A& homework for almost e%ery class period. %In Japanese class, we ha%e

=&`& = 'at most' It indicates a ma(imum limit, which is still a small amount.. +&yKBU*$=&`&BC 6 &&h&&In a large class, on a good day, you will be called on at most once or twice. F S -. : J_=&`& T K,# Japanese white# collar workers, when they take %acations, take at most four, fi%edays. N4 B$U*34N-ow many hours do you study each dayE +4 =&`&U*34N6&&hKN It's pretty good if I study one hour at most (if any .

49

 ~ = 'although'

When, in )5B , 56*, 5B contains a noun, ad$ecti%e, or stati%e %erb, itme(presses the idea of 'although 5B, 56.' >otice that, when 5B, contains an action %erb, indicates two simultaneous actions. It is a dis$uncti%e con$unctionnormally used in written Japanese. 5tati% e (pre#masu form

$&" c&% +lthough he is in Japan, he eats only western food. %a9 %J.$Mm @6 +lthough <r. 7amada knew about the test tomorrow, he didn't tell me. yzU59 &&kJO&+lthough 5cott Geterson was married, he saw other women. A$"&J&X<6& While I know that tobacco is bad for your body, I cannot !uit. &% +lthough that child is BB years old, he0she is !uite mature0reliable. #"V%+lthough this car is used, it runs well. Hl[I X=&uN- w W && +lthough this room is narrow, it is comfortable. X9>pc9 _(Y#++6&A+lthough this area is incon%enient, there are few cars and the air is clean. Z[9 ?96'nfortunately, I became unable to go.

 (J = 'for; considering' + compound particle which indicates a standard for comparisons. %a9kJLTKN<aeda speaks good 2nglish for a Japanese. ef \ A&JJ ]^ 9 & ( & "okyo has few crimes for a big city. B^M[Ji&KN?=or a first year te(tbook, it is fairly difficult, isn't itE >ote the difference between J and $, as below4 ~a9 B^J12."&%~ a9may or may not be a first year Japanese student. ~ a 9 B ^ $ 1 2 . " & % ~ a 9 is actually a first year Japanese student.

!" !6$_ !# = '9ven if !" is true% !#; !". 9ven so% !#' efrs: t&J&!6$_t&$m&I had e(pected that prices in "okyo would be high, but e%en so, I was surprised how e(pensi%e e%erything was. DvFGt ##_-&0#K+"&J#!6$__# ( 34a=_&&K&A#I think it's great that +merican high school students can spend lots of time on e(tra#curricular acti%ities, etc., but e%en so, wouldn't it be better if they made students study a little moreE wPO$%9K+%UAJ6&%!6$_ I !9 K &% 5$_&&A# Japanese colleges are said to pro%ide time for students to rela( before they go out into the real world. 2%en so, I don't think they should $ust goof around.

 > o = 'as far as ~; long as ~' + con$unction which e(presses the idea Fas long as (a certain condition is met F or Fas long as (/ to the e(tent .F It is used to set limits within which the following statement holds true. It generally follows plain forms of %erbs and & # ad$ecti%es. >ouns are in K ad$ecti%es are either in K (plain form o & o K+%o9NI will try as much as possible. ]^&oy&+s long as the teacher doesn't come, the test won't begin. K % (o r K& o you are a % form (i.e., k K % o , and # % #form or in #form (i.e., ( .

w^K %o12.34&5$&&While (as long as student, you must study kan$i.

K & o m g @ & +s long as you are not 6B, you cannot buy alcohol. K % (o r K& o

o+a&+s long as you are well, please work.

@ = 'on the contrar ' "he ad%erb @is used when one describes a situation0e%ent that occurs contrary to one's e(pectation..

 +4 BU*_`m "&K06K,#7ou swam for an hour, you must be tired. B4 &&@@$" o, on the contrary, I feel great. @@@@@@@@@@ & z . a b = 9 @ + I washed a white sweater, and now it looks dirtier than before. c+&/&h.;j J@%J for a machine, sometimes you get more confused. %When you read instructions

59 9$34 N%J@0& *<&.N%J % If you study too much the night before an e(am, sometimes you end up making sill mistakes. 1 ( $ (> C$C^- % = '( has its o'n ~' %Garents ha%e their own li%es )to li%e*.

_$G9@ %9A(8&X%Jd0"#A3hildren ha%e their own ways of thinking, so we should first listen to them.

(" ("$ V = '(" does things in its o'n 'a ' (" (" (# = '(" has its o'n (#' DvFG$DvFG"a $"a % &&J_@ & Both +merica and Japan ha%e their respecti%e good points, so we can't say one is better than the other. +4_#,J34Why don't you study moreE B46K_$9&%0_KN5 I am doing my best in my own way.

 >=$

=$ , like $ e(presses the idea of 'although.' -owe%er, =$ e(presses the speaker's feeling of displeasure, disgust or contempt. "his phrase follows > , # ad$ecti%e and plain form of &#ad$ecti%es and %erbs. &%=$Mm@6& )-e* does not tell me although )he* knows about it. m_&=$t&_g#k NIt's too bad that there are people who ha%e absolutely no money but keep buying e(pensi%e things. =$KI !&%It's troublesome when a child does not want to play outside. =$NWX%k&XA + person who is poor at doing something but lo%es doing it is a big pain.

>&# /J&# d #K = 'for such and such a reason' &# is a collo!uial form of J&#, and this phrase follows a sentence in a plain form. y34 & !&J&# d KA&.&w^_&N "here are students who don't do homework saying that they are too busy studying for other courses. K59N%J&#dKOP.X<%&&<any Japanese women !uit companies for the reason of marriage. K&59X<%&#dKcd #"#QRJa=_@ & >? p0# 9KN In Japanese companies, it is normal for women not to be gi%en important positions for the )ostensible* reason that they will soon !uit to get married.

 > : & "his suffi( is attached to a limited set of nouns, stems of ad$ecti%es and stems of the %erb ( N#form . It indicates that B something looks0appears like something else or 6 someone easily gets upset, forgets, etc. It generally carries a negati%e connotation. t&_K_ e X f J %& J'XN : -@% 2%en e(pensi%e things look cheap if they ha%e distasteful colors and designs. ga &$_:&k%+ person who acts childish no matter how old )he* gets is a problem. .:%J6:%When you get old you become forgetful. &z"6:&White sweaters get dirty easily.

($ G N % (/($ G V = ''ith regard% concerning% about% on'

>$GN%modifies a noun and >$G modifies a %erb1 both mean 'concerning.'

* &A$&$GN% 5 9+#9$Kesearch concerning women has increased in the last ten years. ^$GN%h+&JUm 6$%"hese days, if you don't ha%e knowledge about computers, you fall behind the times. &ij&# #9#$Gk,#. 0< &%9KNI am collecting mat <I5 concerning the women's liberation mo%ement in Japan.

 .J l J_$ / I can be a noun or a %erb# (plain form . I f (1) (J l $ = 'together 'ith'% 'along 'ith' i~#. has two basic meanings.

fmnJ$&K Japanese city.

% 8yoto, together with >ara, is an old

n `Jl$aVJ&#gh.J With the WindEF

N-a%e you seen the mo%ie, FLone

(#) (J l $ /V (plain% non)past) J l $ "his indicates that 'as I happens, so does changes proceed simultaneously. 7.' It often indicates that two

.:%J$ra& J$%"#$%& It seems that as one grows older, one begins to worry more about tri%ial things. JUJ$3O9N %Hanguage changes with time. I .( 7 $=% / 'to lea%e0entrust I to 7' 899 Jc+&$=_&&J#I think we can ha%e machines do simple tasks. dJk$=&h&&It's better not to lea%e important things to others. ^ JA $= a& If it's computer#related, lea%e it to me.

 . $ / = '9ver

time . happens% / also happens'

(non)past plain ) $

% a 9 J 0 N $ ( % a 9 . o - 6 % 2%ery time I talk with 7amadasan, she0he encourages me. O# $p0.8a6%&XAI don't like to be told the same story e%ery time I see. .%$SQL&$#9N%2%ery time I watch "., I am disgusted by how many commercials there are. $ ,#$m-X-.g+6 %9n e%ery trip, my mother brings back sou%enirs0gifts.

V 6 J # & N / > 6 & & K N = 'I 'ish someone 'ould do something; It 'ould be great if someone does something for me' "his is e!ui%alent to .6&&($ J#&N and e(presses the speaker's (or writer's wish or hope. It literally means 'it would be nice if ~.'

#I9K&%9KN_J346J&N<y child is $ust ha%ing a good time. I wish he )she* would study more. U $b=36qJ&NI wish men would change with the times.

2ausative (permissive use) 6 It 'ould be great if someone let me do !omething

UrH$I.s# 99a=6JWhen I was a child, it would ha%e been great if my father0mother would ha%e let me dri%e a car.

"

 rH$Iq+ J.a=6&&KN...It would be great if my father0mother would make my fa%orite foods. 1 ;

> " # N % = 'to have a feeling that; to have the impression that; it seems to me that'

( T,#0"#N I feel my Japanese has impro%ed a little. `kt##u# J$_3+"#NWith an increase in foreign laborers, I feel Japan has started to change. I7JGH95& % "his e(pression means that I has something to do with 7 or that I is related to 7. JDvFGLMNO#@+a0 45&&TP_9A&A5KO:9 < @@@@@@@@@@ &J_ GH %K&K,# It seems to me that trade friction between the '.5. and Japan is not only an economic issue but is also related to the cultural differences. &59_QR.v0w5 %#i&JGH %Whether women continue working after getting married has something to do whether men are sympathetic to the situation or not.

>%

% attaches to a #ad$ecti%e or &#ad$ecti%e, and indicates that someone shows a sign of feeling in a certain way. 5o, &X% comes from &XA. Japanese makes a distinction between the speaker's e(pression of his or her own feeling and the speaker's e(pression of someone else's feeling. "hus, while &XA generally e(presses the speaker0writer's own feeling of dislike, & X % generally describes someone else's feeling of dislike, which the speaker0writer can obser%e. ab=9&XAI hate doing the wash. ab.&X% Boys hate doing the wash.

 kK0N k(&I feel embarrassed when I talk in front of people. Kk K0N.k(%w^& In Japan, there are many students who feel embarrassed about talking in front of others. Gx&8araoke is fun. k*<& .%"& It's not good to make fun of other people's mistakes. &_'Kg#I buy things I want with my own money. %_. K_gX%"& I don't think it's good )for parents* to buy their children e%erything they want.

V& )I7$.&* means that I wants 7 to do .. Basically, it is interchangeable with ._&&. ]^w^$34&J#"eachers want students to study e%ery day. J++k9$.&J&NI do want my husband to cook sometimes. M!+,#0K5.yN &K&9A5I don't want you to smoke in the classroom. >ote that when you want to e(press your own desire to do something, you use .# & form (as in +& .

>$ z _J w = 'to be based on ~'

 kJkJ P _9A& {i &$ zw J& Groblems between people are often based on misunderstandings. | } P & " # 0 _ 9 y K ; 9 A ; - r $ z w & & N 3ontent#related !uestions are based on reading passages we read in class. >J / '$ust because ~' DvFGkAJ .}" ~ N $N%k&% "here are Japanese who call +mericans by their first names only $ust because they are +mericans )i.e., not Japanese*. DvFG K`kAL. 06& In +merica people would not slow down in talking to you $ust because you are a foreigner. kAM@6%5K =9 It's not necessarily the case that one can teach Japanese $ust because one is a Japanese. I .$N% / 'to lot I bother one' I can be a noun or a sentence followed by or J. ra&*<& .$&`0==9If you are worried about minor mistakes, you won't be able to speak any foreign language. k#J. bother you. $&h&&KN"7ou should not let what other people say

>c0A = 'if ~% it's different'

DvFGKNKT , #"S%JK+=9 It's different in the '.5., but in Japan, you cannot go home earlier than your boss. y K K N y K . 0 N " # $ A a & If it were outside of class, it would be different. But, in class, try to speak in Japanese. >#% 0 @& ).(stem D % 0 & is a classical (formal e(pression e!ui%alent to >JK %, since %JK+% (K+& does not + % 0 >JK+&. +s for the %erb

e(ist, it is always #% 0 @&. >ote4 this e(pression is used for e(pressing possibility >9" ability. ]^*<@ %J&#J_ %It's possible that teachers make mistakes.

!0

 =&p=9!#%J&#J unlikely that wars will disappear from this world.

& J # I think it's

k= #9KDvFGk$i&&JB0${J S % 9ne of the Japanese customs that is hard for +mericans to understand is the idea of honne %s. tatemae.

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 1 2 s Begin your letter with &5&. >e(t, write about the recent0current weather, in!uire about the addressee's health, and touch upon your own health. "hen proceed to the main body of the letter. Hastly, in the concluding portion, write K# "m * &N if it is a letter of re!uest. 9therwise, $ust write so#and#so $ " , # mK , etc. "he most common complimentary close is . 5&W . When you are in a big hurry, you can skip the beginning part about the weather, health, etc. by writing `9, which literally means Fpreliminaries deleted.F + letter that starts with usually ends with !#!#, meaning Fin a !uick fashion.F If you are writing to a close friend, howe%er, you may lea%e out all these formal salutations. 1 v s Japanese colleges0uni%ersities ha%e all kinds of clubs for e(tra#curricular acti%ities. 5ome are sports clubs, e.g. X+#:y, etc., whose members play against teams from other colleges0uni%ersities. "hese %arsity players engage in their sports throughout the year. Baseball players, for e(ample, practice all year round. "heir practice sessions are often 5partan, and those who miss them for no apparent reason are likely to be se%erely critici:ed. "he language used within these sports clubs is often %ery restricti%e in that koohai (younger members must use keigo toward senpai (older members . 5tudent who hate this regimentation yet lo%e a particular sport often belong to a less restricti%e group usually referred to as p qO##& , i.e., a group of people sharing the same interest. "here are also all kinds of non#sports clubs ranging from 255 (2nglish 5peaking 5ociety to pqO (8abuki club . "here are many students who seem to spend more hours on e(tra#curricular acti%ities than on course work. "his situation, which most +mericans find hard to understand, is possible, of course, because Japanese professors are generally far from demanding. 1 2 2v s 2s & ' In Japan, as in the '.5., the party that answers the phone speaks first by saying __ . 5ome people skip __ and identify themsel%es as soon as they pick up the recei%er, saying, for e(ample, normally % K & N . Business establishments

identify themsel%es immediately, without saying __. +nother difference between Japan and +merica is that the caller must identify

!2

himself0herself before being asked. -e05he would then ask for the person he0she wishes to talk to, e.g. qwJN]^&%K,#. If you forget to identify yourself, the person answering would ask KN a K,#. "he latest trend seems to be to lea%e out the latter half of this sentence, lea%ing on KN intact. In 2nglish, for identification on the phone, one would say, F"his is so#and#soF or FIs this so#and#soEF instead of FI am...F or F+re you...EF Hikewise, in Japanese, one would say, %KN ("his is Ikeda0the Ikedas and !u J#a 9 mKN (Is that the 8ato's homeE . Golite "elephone 3on%ersation =ormulas Opening JU__%J-a 9mK,# %&!#KN JUqwNUKN -a9&&N %&(m6Aa& If the person you wish to talk to is out % jN< ,J5mN JU !#KNUmK,# %!#KN?U$_ %J&N5 JU!#KNUm0N %#_ 5 =9 If you wish to leave a message JU!#KN!6m$m0Aa%"#m~0 @A a& =9 % nding JUN %<9Aa& 2 2 d 2 & 14' Japanese has a rich system of sound symbolism. Koughly, they can be subdi%ided into two categories4 m9 (phonomimes, onomatopoeia and & (phenomimes, psychomimes . represents words that imitate actual sounds. 2nglish has some of those, too, such as sounds that animals make. 3ompare the following4 ound dogs make4 bowwow & 99 ound of a gunshot4 bang & 9(9 ound cats make4 meow & $m Water dripping4 drip, drip & :: ound cows make4 moo & _ -ea%y ob$ect falling4 thud & 9a are words that e(press states, feelings, manners of actions, etc., impressionistically. 2nglish has some #like words, too, such as rolypoly and shilly-shally. "here are three important differences between 2nglish and Japanese here. =irst, in

!3

2nglish, if one speaks with too many or , one may run the risk of sounding childish. In Japanese, there is no fear of this unless one uses onomatopoeia specifically used in baby#talk, e.g., 2nglish 99 for . 5econd,

is actually filled with %erbs and ad$ecti%es that originated as or but are no longer regarded as such, e.g., slam! wha"k! Rash! sli"k! smooth! plump! glisten, etc. In Japanese, on the other hand, many and ad%erbially, often with the addition of J, e.g., ++HJIj & to ha%e a piercing pain HJIj & something (usually, stomach or teeth persistent way hurts in a dull, are used

: 9 : HJI }P N% & to ask !uestions in rapid succession, i.e., in machine gun fashion !!HJI0N & to talk in a subdued tone HJI0N & to talk noncommittally0e%asi%ely "hird (and this is related to the second point abo%e , there are %ery often cases where in 2nglish, completely different %erbs are used for related actions while, in Japanese, on and the same %erb will do with the addition of different and , e.g., 55 # & to guffaw NN# & to giggle $XJ# & to grin $$# & to smile@@

!4