X-Ray Production

BMP 205 Lecture 3 Mike McNitt-Gray Ph.D.

Some images scanned from A.B. Wolbarst, Physics of Radiology Bushberg et. al., Essential Physics of Medical Imaging

Outline Ch 5 of Bushberg
X-ray Production
Tube
Anatomy Operation

Generator
Function
Waveform

Beam Production
Quality Quantity Heat

X-Rays
Discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen 1895

X-Rays
Do occur naturally All medical X-ray generated by machine With X-ray Tube and High Voltage Generator Conversion of Electrical Energy to Electromagnetic Radiation

X-ray Production

Fancy lightbulb high voltage vacuum tube Cathode e- source and Anode target electrons accelerated (high voltage) across vacuum Suddenly decelerated (smacked) into high Z target Conservation of Energy: Electron kinetic energy (1/2mv2) converted into heat and E-M Radiation
(1% efficient)

X-Ray production
(e- bombardment of high Z target)

X-Rays
Bremsstrahlung Characteristic

Bremsstrahlung Production

Bremsstrahlung Spectrum

Characteristic Production

Binding Energies
Electron Shell Tungsten Molybdenum Rhodium K 69.5 20.0 23.2 L 12.1/11.5/10.5 2.8/2.6/2.5 3.4/3.1/3.0 M 2.8-1.9 0.5-0.4 0.6-0.2 X-rays Tungsten Molybdenum Rhodium K1 K2 K 1 59.32 57.98 67.24 17.48 17.37 19.61 20.22 20.07 22.72

units: keV

Total Spectrum

X-ray Tube

X-Ray Tubes (Inserts)

Vacuum enclosure
Vacuum enclosure pyrex glass or grounded Al High vacuum no air molecules to impede or cause secondary ionizations insulator and or grounded for high voltage applications able to handle high temperatures and thermal expansion

Siemens Straton Tube for CT

Siemens Straton Tube for CT

Siemens Straton Tube for CT

kV, mA, mAs

kV: a measure of the voltage applied across the tube (from the anode to the cathode) mA: the measure of electron flow from cathode to anode (e.g., tube current) mAs: time integrated tube current

Generator Console

X-ray Beam: kV and mAs

mA or mAs
affects quantity of x-rays

kV
Affects x-ray beam energy and penetrability (quality) Also affects efficiency of production (quantity)

Basic Operation
Cathode is source of electrons Heat up a filament, which emits electrons (thermionic emission) Electrons liberated from filament flow through the vacuum of tube when a positive voltage is applied to anode (wrt cathode) Adjustments in filament current change temperature of filament to control tube current Electrons hitting anode produce bremmstrahlung and ..????

Cathode

Focusing Cup Bias

Grid controlled tubes can pinch off the electron flow.

Space Charge Effect

thermionic emission results in an electron cloud (space charge) sufficiently large cloud => repel further emissions

Space Charge Effect

Applied high voltage across the tube
tube current flows: no cloud buildup no repelling of further emissions Accelerates electrons from cathode to anode

Emission versus space charge limited output

voltage dependent

Space Charge Limited Output

X-Ray Tube Anode

High Z related to efficiency of X-ray production Tungsten (W) Z=74
high melting point 3370 C reasonably good heat conductor alloy w/ Rhenium (10%) for structural strength

Anode
Two Types
Stationary Rotating

Rotating anodes prevent heat buildup

~1% energy converted into x-rays (heat) rotating anode prevents heating 1 spot continuously

Stationary Anode

Anode: Rotating
Rotating higher heat capacity
greater surface area 3600 & 10000 rpm stator/rotor induction motor Molybdenum stem

Anode and Focal Spot

Anode Angle and Field Coverage

Line Focus Principle

Problem of competing needs Want small focal spot for high resolution (penumbra) Want large focal spot for high heat capacity
due to low efficiency of X-ray production

Line Focus Principle

Angled anode face (12 - 20 degrees) allows:
larger actual focal spot size smaller effective focal spot size

Decreasing angle
decreases heat capacity but increases resolution

Anode Heel Effect

Anode Heel Effect

e-

cathode Higher Intensity Softer Beam larger apparent size

anode
Lower Intensity Harder Beam smaller apparent size

Anode Heel Effect

Intensity gradient from self absorbtion of anode (heel) As great as 30% along anode-cathode Anode side: smaller apparent fs, harder beam, lower intensity put thicker/denser anatomy at cathode end becomes more pronounced with:
short SID large field size small anode angle

Adjustable Collimator with light localizer

Coincidence of light & x-ray field

Generator
Heart and Brain of X-ray System

X-Ray Generators
Converts electrical power from building electrical grid into form that can be used by X-ray Tube All grid regulated to 60Hz Alternating Current Single phase supply 110 Volt AC Three phase 220 Volt

Tube requirements
Needs DC (is in fact a vacuum tube diode) Can only conduct in one direction:
cathode negative with respect to anode Because of thermionic emission Therefore need rectifiers; convert AC to DC

Need high voltage for X-ray production

mv2 into h 110 Volts vs 110 thousand volts Therefore need transformers (changes voltage)

Transformer
Vp Vs Np Ns

V p i p Vs i s

Single Phase

3 Phase

Voltage Ripple

I kVp2

One vs. Three Phases

Other generators
Battery storage Capacitor discharge Constant potential gradient (CPG)
Tetrodes (high voltage vacuum tubes) control kV and exposure time directly on high voltage side Flat waveform but expensive High freq nearly as good

Summary
Production
Bremsstrahlung and Characteristic Quality and Quantity

Tube and Generator

Operation Imaging

Additional Detail Slides

Transformers
Two separate coils of wire wrapped around closed core Many configurations Electrical supply connected to 1 Output device to 2 Step up or step down

Laws of Transformers
1) Voltage in two circuits proportional to number of turns in the two coils
2) Power (Energy) is conserved:
As Power (watts) is voltage x current: Therefore as voltage increases by turns ratio, current decreases

Np Ns

Vp Vs

V p I p Vs I s
Np Is Ns I p

Bushberg

Autotransformer
Unique single winding design
Self inductive

1 & 2 defined by number of turns enclosed by taps Variable number of turns from taps allows voltage control at relatively low potential Feeds primary of high voltage transformer and filament transformer Can be both step up and down

Filament circuit
Step down transformer drops voltage
10 V @ 3-5 A

Filament current (A) indirectly controls tube current (and output X-ray intensity)

High Voltage Circuit

Step up transformer > 500 fold voltage increase Immersed in dielectric Secondary side of autotransformer Fixed # of transformer windings Grounded at center (mA meter)
So for 100 kVp, potential on one side is +50,000 V & other is 50,000 V Less of an insulation problem

Rectification
Converts AC (needed by transformer) to DC (needed by tube) Conduct current in one direction only Vacuum tubes (old style) large, bulky, and burnout Solid state semiconductor diodes
Made of N-P semiconductors

Conduct only on forward bias

Diode Bridge (Wheatstone bridge)

Four diode arrangement to allow current to flow in one direction through tube regardless of polarity of secondary side of high tension transformer Full wave rectified generator 2x as efficient as self (half) wave rectified But inefficient compared to high freq & CPG generators

Generator Efficiency
Single Phase 100% ripple w/ half or full wave rectified High voltage varies between 0 and max For single phase, average voltage is R.M.S.
R.M .S. peak 2 0.707 peak

Three phase generators

Recall AC power avail. in 3 3 voltage peaks per 1/60 sec 3, 6 pulse
High volt transform & rectify 13.5% ripple

3, 12 pulse
2 different winding config on 2
Delta and wye

Another 30 phase shift for 2 halves of output, peaks fill troughs 3.5% voltage ripple

Medium/High Frequency
Transformer efficiency: V ~ NA By increasing frequency, cross sectional area reduced for same power (50kW in tube head!) Frequency of invertor ranges from 5-100 kHz! Feedback loop controlled during exposure if kV drops off, increase invertor frequency & kV increases Timer accuracy Shorter exposures
(<10 ms)

Generator Type / High Voltage Waveform

Tube Limits & Rating Charts

Tube insert has power/load limit Function of heat produced in exposure HU = kVp x mA x time x correction factor
single phase generator less efficient Correction factor cpg generator =1.4 70 kVp x 100 mA x 0.1 sec = 700 HU (single phase)

Joules = watts x seconds

1 W = 1 V x 1 A = 1000 V x 0.001 A = keV x mA! assume constant voltage, so divide by correction factor! 70 kVp / 1.4 x 100 mA x 0.1 sec = 500 J (single phase) For cpg is 700 Joules

Question: What is highest kVp can safely use to get 35 mAs (350 mA & 100ms)?

Question: What is highest kVp can safely use to get 35 mAs (350 mA & 100ms)?

Answer: Should not exceed 100 kVp

Falling Load
Integrates area under tube rating curve Applies highest mA in shortest time, reduces mA as exposure continues Expensive, not used as much with todays high output tubes

Generator Efficiency Implications

Single phase seldom at peak voltage, so set higher kVp Three phase higher average kVp Less ripple means more mR/mAs (shorter exposure time)
5 mR/mAs single vs. 10 mR/mAs three phase

Ripple based on some multiple of 60 Hz High frequency more common now, smaller and cheaper than CPG

Generator Power Rating

Tube power handling should match generator output Rated in kilowatts under load (kVp x mA) @ 100 kVp 80 kW generator can produce 800 mA at 100 kVp (simultaneously)
Polydoros 80s, Medio CP80

Small clinic may have 20kW, 200 mA at most Angio/Cardio generators 100 kW and greater CT not necessarily high instantaneous, but tube and generator sustain for long periods