Modelling Movement and Perception 1

Rupert Gietl Michael Doneus Martin Fera

Cost Distance Analysis in an Alpine Environment:
Comarison of Dierenl Cosl Surface ModuIes
Abstract:The aer aims lo resenl a comaralive aIicalion of dierenl cosl-surface anaIysis moduIes
in a high aIine environmenl. Cosl anaIysis is a very conlroversiaIIy discussed sub|ecl in archaeoIogy, and
for lhal reason a melhodoIogicaI comarison of veaknesses and slrenglhs of some ouIar Geograhic
Informalion Syslems couId be a necessary conlribulion lo basic research. Ierforming lhe same oeralions
under lhe same recondilions vilh lhree dierenl GIS ackages (IDRISI, GRSS, rcGIS), ve vere abIe lo
comare lheir abiIily, handIing, erformance, and resuIls and lo vork oul lheir slrenglhs and veaknesses.
Introduction
In ugusl 2004 a ro|ecl vas slarled by lhe uslrian
cademy of Sciences and lhe Dearlmenl for Irehis-
loric and MedievaI rchaeoIogy of lhe Universily of
Vienna. The aim of lhe ro|ecl vas lo invesligale lhe
ossibiIily lo aIy non-deslruclive archaeoIogicaI
melhods for invesligaling rehisloric and anlique
roads crossing lhe easlern uslrian Is. The main
melhods aIied vere aeriaI archaeoIogy and GIS-
based anaIyses using various sources of sociaI and
environmenlaI dala.
Irom lhe beginning il vas cIear lhal eseciaIIy
in lhe aIine environmenl non-deslruclive melh-
ods vouId never be abIe lo reIace convenlionaI
melhods of archaeoIogicaI research. Therefore, lhe
idea vas lhal non-deslruclive melhods shouId func-
lion as a hIler lo narrov dovn and idenlify lhose
areas, vhich couId be archaeoIogicaIIy reIevanl and
couId become a rime largel for a more delaiIed ar-
chaeoIogicaI invesligalion using e.g. heId surveys
and excavalion.
To be abIe lo evaIuale lhe aIicabiIily of non-
deslruclive melhods in lhe high aIine environ-
menl, lhe area around lhe Dachslein Ialeau (Fig. 1),
vhich is archaeoIogicaIIy veII invesligaled, vas
chosen for lhe iIol arl of lhe ro|ecl. The area
has been surveyed syslemalicaIIy by NIS (vvv.
anisa.at), vhich has roduced a remarkabIe number
of archaeoIogicaI siles and hnds
1
.
The sludy area conlains a very helerogeneous
overaII aearance of geomorhoIogy: from lhe
highesl eaks sIighlIy beIov 3000m, vhich are cov-
ered vilh gIaciers, lo high Ialeaus belveen 1400
and 2000m, and Iane river vaIIeys. Movemenl in
lhese areas is deendenl on dierenl delermining
faclors. The vegelalion diers from bare rock above
lhe lree Iine, aIine meadovs, shrubs, and lrees un-
dernealh il, lo dense voodIands on lhe anks of lhe
mounlains and agricuIluraI Iand on lhe bouoms of
lhe river vaIIeys.
Since lhe earIy 1990s, cosl veighl and cosl dis-
lance anaIysis have been a conlroversiaIIy dis-
cussed aroach in Iandscae archaeoIogy vilh
severaI imorlanl case sludies and dierenl a-
roaches
2
. Inslead of adding anolher aueml lo lhal
Iisl, ve decided lo focus on a singIe examIe, lhe
alhvays belveen lhe KnaIIvand (a hiIIforl seuIe-
menl from Iale anliquily in lhe river vaIIey soulh
of lhe DachsleinIaleau) and lhe GrafenbergaIm,
an aIine aslure vilh smaII hnds from lhe Roman
Age
3
. Here ve erformed a carefuI examinalion and
melhodoIogicaI comarison of lhe veaknesses and
slrenglhs of some of lhe mosl commonIy used GIS
cosl-surface moduIes in archaeoIogy: rcGIS, ID-
RISI and as Iree&Oen Source aIlernalive GRSS
(hu://grass.ilc.it).
1
I.g. M.Nui 1996, WiNunoiz-KoN.u 2003. Mosl recenlIy M.Nui 2006, 190 .
2
V.N LiisiN 2002, 6-1., CoNoiiv/L.xi 2006, iii/WiisoN/Wicxn.x 2002, 169186, M.uv/R.xos 1996,
104126, iii/Locx 2000, 85100, Siiv./Iizzioio 2001, 279286.
3
S+iiNxi.ini 1997, 35, Hini+/Scn.icniNoi/S+iiNxi.ini 1999, 29, Hini+/M.Nui/S+iiNxi.ini 2002.
2 Layers of Iercelion C 2007
Data Collection
Ior lhe cosl-surface anaIysis lerrain modeIs, hydro-
IogicaI and geoIogicaI mas, cIimale-change-slud-
ies, as veII as bio-diversily and vegelalion dalabases
vere invesligaled in order lo reecl lheir inuence
on a deduclive rediclive modeI
4
.
High aIine scenery oers a Iimiled number of
resources and issued some seciaI chaIIenges lo
ancienl men. This haenslance heIed us lo bring
inlo focus |usl a fev faclors vhich reguIale humans
moving and seuIing in lhe regions around lhe lree
Iine: Managemenl of aslure hrsl of aII requires
exlensive meadovs and assured valer suIy.
Moving in high mounlains mainIy deends on envi-
ronmenlaI faclors, such as sIoe and condilion of lhe
soiI. y conlrasl cuIluraI or reIigious faclors Iike ler-
riloriaI boundaries, sancluaries or laboo areas vere
imossibIe lo be delermined for lhe sludy area.
The bedrock of lhe Dachslein-IIaleau is karsl.
This orous form of Iimeslone enabIed lhe forma-
lion of aslures in encIosed basins vhere maleriaI
from gIaciaI erosion vas deosiled
5
. In lhese areas,
marshy meadovs and smaII Iakes can lherefore be
found. Karsl imedes easy movemenl for animaIs
and human beings, anolher reason for moving ref-
erabIy over lhe grass covered meadovs. Ilhough
valer is an auraclive faclor on lhe dry eIevaled Iain,
il becomes a barrier on ils anks, forming canyons
and river vaIIeys.
No mauer vhich GIS sohvare one uses, lhe mosl
cruciaI oinl during lhe rocess of crealing a cu-
muIalive cosl surface is lhe seIeclion, combinalion,
and veighling of lhese environmenlaI faclors. Il is
an individuaI decision of lhe singIe researcher and
lherefore a comIeleIy sub|eclive rocess.
We focused on lhree cenlraI faclors: sIoe, lye
of lerrain and hydroIogy, assigning lhem dierenl
veighls aher discussion vilh IocaIs, herdsmen, and
cIimbers. The resuIlanl cosl rasler is lhe combina-
lion of lhese faclors.
Sotware Comparisons
Iimiled seciaI case for a cosl surface anaIysis
vilh quile easiIy rediclabIe resuIls in a veII knovn
archaeoIogicaI Iandscae gave us lhe ossibiIily lo
comare lhe caabiIilies and resuIls of some of lhe
Iig. 1.The sludy area in lhe uslrian Is belveen HaIIslau and Slreuveg.
4
Induclive vs. deduclive aroach: V.N LiisiN 2002, 54.
5
G.i 1990, 170171.
ModeIIing Movemenl and Iercelion 3
mosl used GIS-Syslems: rcGIS 9.1, IDRISI 15 and
as a Iree&Oen Source aIlernalive GRSS 6.1
6
.
To modeI lhe cosl of human movemenl, a looI
is needed vhich has lhe ossibiIily lo dislinguish
belveen isolroic and anisolroic cosl. Isolroic
means lhal lhe cosl of crossing a singIe ceII is equaI
indeendenlIy of lhe direclion in vhich you cross
il. In lhe case of vaIking sIoes, cosl viII be aniso-
lroic, since lhe energy needed viII deend on lhe
direclion of ones movemenl (uhiII, dovnhiII, or
araIIeI lo lhe sIoe). nolher lyicaI examIe for
lerrain anisolroy is vhen crossing rasler ceIIs re-
resenling a river: Cosls acl dierenlIy deending on
vhelher lhe movemenl is dovn-river or u-river
and again dierenlIy if one vanls lo cross il
7
.
SurrisingIy, lhe caabiIily lo modeI anisolroic
cosls is onIy a recenl fealure of GIS and lhe deveIo-
ers lhemseIves sliII have lo encourage lheir users lo
incororale inlerchanging exeriences and dicuI-
ties
8
.
IDRISI 15 Andes
In IDRISI 15 ndes lhe COST and VRCOST mod-
uIes modeI isolroic and anisolroic cosls. Move-
menl imeding or faciIilaling faclors are dehned
as relative frictions and forces
9
. If a hiker needs
350 caIories/h lo vaIk aIong al ground (base fric-
lion of 1) and 700 caIories/h lo go uhiII vilh lhe
same seed, ve can assign lo lhe sIoe a friclion of
Iig. 2.Dierenl k coecienl in VRCOST:0.1 (u.I.), 1 (u.r.), 2 (I.I.), 10 (I.r.). Slarling Ioinl: KnaIIvand hiIIforl. In-
creasing k, cosls are more and more Iimiled around lhe direclion of maximaI friclion, alhs become more Iinear.
6
The seIeclion is based on lhe moslIy used ackages. Worlh lo menlion aIso: SG GISs cosl surface moduIes: Oi.v.
2004, 159.
7
V.N LiisiN 2002, 6-5.
8
I.s+x.N 2006, 255.
9
I.s+x.N 2006, 256.
4 Layers of Iercelion C 2007
2. Going dovnhiII consuming 175 caIories/h is equaI
lo a friclion of 0.5. Iriclions Iess lhan 1 are caIIed
forces. IoIIoving lhis schema, users have lo recIas-
sify lheir dala in order lo oblain an image describ-
ing lhe magnilude of cosls/friclions. In lhe case of
vaIking lhis image viII usuaIIy be dominaled by
lhe faclor sIoe.
The second faclor of anisolroic cosl modeIIing
in IDRISI is lhe direction of friction image, vhich
reresenls lhe direclion from vhich lhe maximum
friclionaI eecl occurs. In case of a erson vaIking
across a Iandscae, lhe direction of friction image is an
uhiII oinling asecl-image (Fig. 2).
Having bolh dalasels, lhe user can caIcuIale a
cosl rasler for one or more slarling oinls vhich re-
ecls lhe eeclive cosls deending on lhe angIe of
crossing a ceII. The oulul can be maniuIaled by
recIassifying lhe magnitude of friction rasler and by
changing lhe user-dehned coecienl k: Wilh k
il is ossibIe lo conlroI lhe increase of lhe resislance
or friclion belveen lhe angIes 900 in reIalion lo
lhe direclion being considered as maximaI friclion.
sIover increasing of friclion faciIilales lhe caI-
cuIalion of slraighler alhs
10
. The alhvay funclion
hnaIIy caIcuIales lhe Ieasl cosl alh.
GRASS 6.1
GRSS 6.1 aIso has lvo moduIes lo caIcuIale iso-
tropic and anisotropic cost maps: r.cost and r.walk
11
.
WhiIe r.cost modeIs isolroic cosl surfaces, r.walk
caIcuIales a rasler ma reresenling lhe anisolroic
cumuIalive cosl of moving from one geograhic Io-
calion lo anolher.
The inul is an eIevalion rasler logelher vilh an-
olher rasler, vhose ceIIs reresenl friclion cosl. The
friclion cosl ma is again a combinalion of recIas-
sihed and veighled environmenlaI/cuIluraI fac-
lors. In addilion lo lhe friclion ma, r.walk considers
an anisolroic lraveI lime deending on dierenl
vaIking seed associaled vilh dovnhiII and uhiII
movemenls foIIoving lhe formuIas of i+xiN and
L.Noxii
12
. Wilh a user-dehned aram eler of lhe
Iinear equalion combining movemenl and friclion
cosls, one can modify lhe oulul (Fig. 3).
The Ieasl cosl alh moduIe r.drain, crealed for
hydroIogicaI aIicalions, lraces a ov lhrough an
eIevalion modeI on a rasler ma Iayer. The main
veakness of r.drain is lhal il caIcuIales lhe alh by
choosing lhe Iover vaIue belveen ad|acenl ceIIs
and lerminales Iike valer vhen lhe Iovesl vaIue is
reached, even if il is nol lhe deslinalion oinl chosen
by lhe user. Ior lhal reason ve had lo exorl GRSS
cosl rasler mas in IDRISI lo caIcuIale lhe Ieasl-cosl
alh.
ArcGIS 9.1
ISRIs rcGIS 9.x has a Iarge number of cosl-mod-
uIes incororaled in ils SaliaI naIysl exlension.
Cost-distance and path-distance are lhe equivaIenls lo
lhe isolroic and anisolroic moduIes of IDRISI and
GRSS
13
.
In addilion, il oers a moduIe for corridor analysis,
vhich caIcuIales lhe sum of accumuIalive cosls for
lvo inul accumuIalive cosl raslers (Fig. 4).
ISRIs cosl dislance looIs caIcuIale for each ceII
of a rasler ma lhe Ieasl accumuIalive cosl lo a re-
dehned slarling oinl. olh source oinl and cosl
rasler are needed, olionaIIy comosed from dala-
sels recIassihed lo a common scaIe.
Wilh lhe path distance looIs, one can add more
cosl comIexily adding horizonlaI and verlicaI fac-
lors lhal inuence lhe lolaI cosl of moving from one
Iocalion lo anolher.
UnforlunaleIy, lhe moduIes had robIems han-
dIing a rasler Iarger lhan 7000 4500 ixeIs (our
DTM vilh a resoIulion of 10m). IrobIems aIso oc-
curred vilh lhe imorl and exorl of dala generaled
by IDRISI and GRSS. Comarisons vere addilion-
aIIy dicuIl because ISRI uses a comIeleIy dier-
enl lerminoIogy in ils documenlalion.
Discussion
During our lesls, ve erformed various caIcuIalions
crealing alhs belveen lhe Roman siles on lo of
lhe KnaIIvand and lhe GrafenbergaIm. Surrising-
Iy, il vas imossibIe lo reroduce lhe same or even
10
I.s+x.N 2006, 257.
11
hu://grass.ilc.il/gd/hlmI_grass63/r.vaIk.hlml |27 May 2007j, Ni+iii/Mi+.sov. 2004.
12
i+xiN 1977, L.Noxii 1984.
13
hu://vebheI.esri.com/arcgisdesklo/9.2/index.cfm`ToicNameCosl_Dislance |27 May 2007j.
ModeIIing Movemenl and Iercelion 5
Iig. 3.GRSS Isolroic Iriclion Cosl Rasler + |Iambda WaIking Inergy (anisolroic)j CumuIalive Cosls.
Iig. 4.rcGIS Corridor naIysis.
6 Layers of Iercelion C 2007
very simiIar resuIls even vhen using lhe same dala,
veighled in lhe same reIalion.
Fig. 5 shovs lhree alhs, each one caIcuIaled by
a dierenl GIS ackage (orange GRSS, green
rcGIS, vioIel IDRISI). rasler ma comosed of
sIoe (66%), soiI lye faciIilaling movemenl (22%)
and roximily lo sources of valer (200m direcl Iine
buer, 11%) serves as lhe base dala. Il vas rocessed
vilh defauIl vaIues by aII lhree cosl anaIysis mod-
uIes.
WhiIe lhe alh caIcuIaled by rcGIS ascends in
a very slraighl Iine foIIoving lhe nelvork of mod-
ern hiking alhs, lhe orange alh (GRSS), aher a
common assage norlh of KnaIIvand diverges hrsl
lo lhe easl, lhen lo lhe vesl, laking more advanlage
of lhe reIief lhan lhe rcGIS alh. The vioIel alh
(IDRISI) aIso avoids slee sIoes and roceeds
mainIy easl of lhe olhers. Ior Iong dislances il aIso
foIIovs modern hiking alhs.
The main causes of lhe devialions may be lhe dif-
ferenl vay of requesled recIassihcalion, eseciaIIy
belveen IDRISI (<1 forces, >1 friclions) and
GRSS/rcGIS (arbilrary recIassihcalion), dier-
enl aIgorilhms
14
, and lhe Iimiled ossibiIily of inler-
changing lhe cosl rasler belveen lhe lhree syslems.
WhiIe imorl end exorl of dala belveen IDRISI
and GRSS seem lo funclion roerIy, il vas nol
ossibIe lo exorl lhe same dala lo rcGIS. There-
fore, il vas nearIy imossibIe lo reroduce lhe same
rocess of dala rearalion in lvo dierenl GIS
ackages.
Iig. 5.GRSS (orange), rcGIS (green), IDRISI (vioIel).
Leasl cosl alhs caIcuIaled vilh moduIes defauIl seuings.
14
The Free & Open Source GIS GRSS uses Dqkslras aIgorilhm (hu://grass.ilc/gd/hlmI_grass63/r.vaIk.hlml), vhiIe
aIgorilhms of IDRISI and rcGIS are rorielary and nol accessibIe.
Iig. 6.Dierenl resuIls deending on recIassihcalion and
user dehned aramelers.
ModeIIing Movemenl and Iercelion 7
In a second sle ve concenlraled our eorls on
observing lhe eecl of aIlering dierenl user de-
hned coecienls and variabIes. The resuIls from
IDRISI are shovn in lhe foIIoving (Fig. 6).
The very slraighl vioIel Iine is lhe Ieasl cosl alh
caIcuIalion using lhe base rasler vilh lhe VRCOST
defauIl vaIues. The red Iine vas caIcuIaled on lhe
same rasler, bul using lhe vaIue 1 for k (inslead
of lhe defauIl vaIue 2): s a resuIl lhe alh avoids
sleeer sIoes. ConsequenlIy ve oeraled vilh k
vaIues under lhe defauIl vaIue of 2, in order lo gel
alhs vilh genlIe ascenls.
The yeIIov Iine is a Ieasl cosl alh over an ani-
solroic rasler from IDRISI vhere sIoes over 50
become disroorlionaIIy higher and unauraclive
for crossing. simiIar slralegy, using IDRISI, vas
aIied by eII, WiIson and Wickham in lhe Sangro
VaIIey Iro|ecl
15
.
The orange Iine, vhich deviales cIearIy lovards
vesl, vas caIcuIaled in GRSS vilh defauIl seuings
and lhe base anisolroic cosl rasler exorled from
IDRISI.
The caIcuIaled alhs vere archaeoIogicaIIy evaI-
ualed. visil lo some of lhe modeIIed alhs shoved
lhal lhose caIcuIaled vilhoul lhe 50 sIoe-Iimil vere
by far loo slee lo drive cauIe u and ohen even lo
cIimb. InlereslingIy, lhe orange alh (GRSS cosl
rasler) corresonds lo a channeI of suIy lhal lhe
sheherds use loday if lhey vanl lo reach lhe bol-
lom of lhe Ialeau as fasl as ossibIe. resuIl Iike
lhal is nol surrising if ve remember lhal r.walks
seciaIily is lo consider lhe anisolroic lraveI lime.
This is anolher slrong indicalion lhal lhe resuIls of
cosl surface and Ieasl cosl alh caIcuIalions do nol
onIy deend on lhe dala, bul aIso on lhe caIcuIaling
aIgorilhm. Ior bringing lhe cauIe u or dovn, lhe
sheherds loday use lhe modern hiking alhs (de-
icled in Iighl grey), vhich are cIose lo lhe modeIIed
red and yeIIov Iines. The yeIIov and red Iines addi-
lionaIIy seem lo malch more or Iess lo a Ianned bul
never reaIized foresl road.
Ilhough mosl of lhe singIe alhs foIIov quile
dierenl Iines, lhere are some seclions vhere one
can observe a slriking overIa (e.g. haIfvay belveen
lhe KnaIIvand and lhe GrafenbergaIm (Fig. 6)).
These are areas, vhich vouId be vorlhy of delaiIed
invesligalions by aeriaI archaeoIogy and inlensive
survey in order lo hIler oul Iocalions for archaeo-
IogicaI excavalion.
The main robIem in archaeoIogicaI lerms is lhe
unreaIislic modeIIing of comuled alhs in slee
lerrain. The alhs cIimb uhiII in an unreaIislic
slraighl Iine and nol in lhe lyicaI zigzag vay one
vouId execl (Fig. 7). The aeriaI holograh of lhe
SIkass
16
, vhich is in lhe neighbourhood of our
sludy area, shovs lhe medievaI roads Ieading u
lo lhe ass. Their zigzag form al lhe momenl can-
nol be reroduced by a cosl surface/Ieasl cosl alh
moduIe.
15
iii/WiisoN/Wicxn.x 2002, 176.
16
M.Nui 2003.
Iig. 7.(I.) Modern road and medievaI mounlain ass road on lhe SIkass. (r.) KnaIIvand lo GrafenbergaIm: Slraighl
comuled alhs in 3D-viev.
8 Layers of Iercelion C 2007
s a soIulion lo lhal robIem ve vouId Iike lo
caII auenlion lo a direclion deendenl Ieasl cosl alh
aIgorilhm resenled in 2000 by WaIler CoIischonn
and Jorge Victor Pilar
17
vhich so far has nol been
imIemenled in a commerciaIIy avaiIabIe GIS ack-
age: Il can caIcuIale lhe besl roule on a slee moun-
lain foIIoving a siraI alh, using shar lurns Iike
road buiIders do and have aIvays done in lhe asl.
Conclusions
In lhis aer, an examinalion and melhodoIogicaI
comarison of veaknesses and slrenglhs of some of
lhe mosl commonIy used GIS cosl-surface moduIes
in archaeoIogy vas resenled. The quaIily of resuIls
from a cosl dislance anaIysis deends mainIy on lhe
user dehned aramelers rovided by each sohvare
soIulion.
ddilionaIIy, lhe oulul viII aIso dier lo a Iarge
degree deending on lhe sohvare used for caIcuIal-
ing cosl rasler and Ieasl cosl alh. Iven vhen slarl-
ing from lhe same ooI of dala veighled in lhe same
roorlion, lhe resuIls vere in arls IargeIy devial-
ing from each olher.
esides lhese dierences, lhe main robIem of
caIcuIaling Ieasl cosl alhs for archaeoIogicaI ur-
oses in slee lerrain is lhal due lo lhe aIgorilhms
borroved from hydroIogy, lhe caIcuIaled alhs
foIIov unreaIislicaIIy slraighl Iines. n aIgorilhm
vhich has lhe olenliaI lo rovide beuer resuIls is
aIready ubIished bul sliII nol imIemenled in com-
merciaIIy avaiIabIe GIS sohvare.
Desile lhese robIems, ve are convinced lhal
lhe currenlIy avaiIabIe cosl-surface moduIes can be
usefuIIy aIied in archaeoIogy, if lhe archaeoI ogisl
aIIovs for lheir veaknesses. The resuIl lherefore
viII nol be lhe exacl Iocalion and reconslruclion
of an individuaI alh. The benehl of cosl dislance
anaIysis can ralher be seen in ils abiIily lo narrov
dovn corridors of inleresl for delaiIed examinalion
lhrough aeriaI archaeoIogy, geohysics, or exlensive
heId surveys. In archaeoIogicaIIy unknovn regions
lhey can deIiver lhe hrsl indicalions for ossibIe
Iinks belveen archaeoIogicaI siles.
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Rupert Gietl
Martin Fera
Austrian Academy of Sciences
Prehistory
Dr. Ignaz Seipel-Platz 2
1010 Vienna
Austria
ruppi@arc-team.com
martin.fera@univie.ac.at
Michael Doneus
University of Vienna
Department for Prehistoric and Mediaeval Archaeology
Franz-Kleingasse 1
1190 Vienna
Austria
michael.doneus@univie.ac.at