1

Session 1. 1 and the definition of Fraction

In session 1, the class will consider the concept of one. Using this concept, we
will define a fraction and look at various representations of common fractions.
Session 2. Equivalent Fractions
In session 2, the class will consider the equivalence of fractions. We will see two
representations of the concept of equivalent fractions, one using tessellations of the
plane into rectangles and the other using the multiplication table.
Session 3. Inequality
In session 3, the class will consider inequality of fractions. We will take some
fractions, such as 2/5 and 3/7, and investigate which is larger using the Math Enginetm .
Session 4. Adding (Subtracting) Fractions with Like Denominators
In session 4, the class will see the hands-on representation of adding and sub-
tracting two fractions with the same denominator.
Session 5. Adding (Subtracting) Fractions with Unlike Denominators
In session 5, we will extend the idea of adding and subtracting two fractions to
fractions with unlike denominators. We will also address the concept of finding the
least common denominator, showing how this is manifested with the manipulative.
Session 6. Multiplying Fractions
Session 7. Canceling Common Factors While Multiplying Fractions
In sessions 6 and 7, we will address the idea of multiplying two fractions using
the math manipulative. We will look at multiplication, reciprocals, and the idea of can-
celing like factors in the numerator and denominator when multiplying fractions.
Session 8. Dividing Fractions
In session 8, the class will see how dividing fractions is essentially the same as
dividing two whole numbers. We will see why invert and multiply works in dividing
one fraction by another.
Session 9. Ratio and Proportion
In session 9, the class will investigate the relationship between fractions and
proportion. We will solve in a hands-on manner the proportion 2/5 =x/7. We will see
how this relates to other problems, such as percentage.
Session 10. Wrap-up and Discussion.
In session 10, the class will review the ideas covered in the workshop. The in-
structor will answer questions and lead a discussion about how the concepts learned in
the workshop can be used in the students’ classroom lessons and teaching.

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 2
Hands-on Fractions Using Balls
The concepts of fractions can seem mysterious and frightening. What does it
mean to say that 1/2 and 3/6 are the same fraction, i.e. they are equivalent? They do not
look the same. When we are told that to divide 2/3 by 4/5 we must invert 4/5 and then
multiply it by 2/3, we might wonder why this is so. Where did this come from? Why is
it true? Is there some way of seeing it? If fractions seem mysterious to us, what do they
look like to a 4th or 5th grader? In this workshop, we will try to use the Math Enginetm,
a math manipulative, and some simple definitions to show why all these strange and
mysterious rules are reasonable.

This workshop is a 10-hour study of fractions. I want you, the student, to try to
put out of your mind all the rules and ideas you were taught about fractions We will
define what a fraction is and then think about what it would mean to compare and do
operations on the fractions. We will try to demonstrate why all the rules, like the
division rule invert and multiply, are true.

Each session will consist of an explanation, a lesson plan, and an exercise. We

will discuss the definitions and then work out various problems and then do exercises. I
would like you to ask questions about things that are not clear to you and dispute things
with which you disagree. I want you to feel free to voice ideas and ask questions
without wondering whether they are “stupid.” You could call this workshop,
“Everything you wanted to know about fractions, but were afraid to ask.”

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 3

Session 1 One and the Definition of Fraction

We will start by looking at where some of the words that we use with fractions
originated. I think it is always informative to see what a mathematical word means in a
regular English non-mathematical setting. We can sometimes get a better understanding
of the mathematical concept if we see where the word came from. A fraction is “a small
portion broken off; small part, amount, degree, etc.; a fragment; as, a fraction of time.”
The word fraction comes from the Latin fractio, a breaking. It appears then that a
fraction is obtained by taking something, breaking it, and taking one of the parts.

In mathematics, we take this breaking and make it more precise. We take

something which we call one or the unit and break it into a number of equal parts,
which we call the denominator of the fraction. We then take a certain number of these
equal parts. The number of equal parts that we take is called the numerator. One of the
important ideas that must be considered in the mathematical definition of denominator
is that the unit is broken into equal parts.

An interesting definition related to denominator is the one for the word

denominate. This comes from the past participle denominatus meaning to name. The
verb form in English means “to name; to give a name or epithet to; to call; to designate.
The adjectival form in mathematics is interesting; “denoting a number which expresses
a specific kind of unit; qualifying: opposed to abstract ; thus, seven pounds is a
denominate number, while seven, without reference to concrete units, is abstract.”
Thus, in 2/5, the 5 is denominate or the denominator because it tells us what we are
taking 2 of.

We can view the word numerator in a similar manner. Let’s look at the verb
numerate. It comes from the Latin word numeratus meaning to count, number. To
numerate is either “to count, to enumerate” or “to read (a number or numbers expressed
in figures).” The adjectival form, mainly British, is “able to deal with scientific
concepts, especially in a nathematical way; as, an increasingly numerate society.” The
numerator of a fraction is “that term of a fraction which shows how many of the
specified parts of a unit are taken....” A second definition for a numerator is “a person
or thing that counts.”

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The Three Parts of a Fraction
Numerator Number (Count)

Fraction Bar
3
__ Fracture (Break)
Denominator Denote (Name)
4
4

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 5
Let’s look at a specific fraction, 3/4, and see what its different parts are.
How do explain to a child what a fraction is? What is it that makes fractions so 3_
important? First note that there are three parts to the fraction, two numbers and
a line. What are the different parts called and what do they represent? 4
A fraction is a mathematical representation of a physical action. We take
an object, we break it into several equal parts, and then we take a certain number of
those parts. Each part of the fraction indicates one of these actions. The fraction bar
represents taking an object, one thing, a unit and breaking it into equal parts.

Let’s take a rectangle that can hold 4 balls. This will be our unit.

We now break the rectangle into 4 pieces. The 3_

fraction bar indicates that this fracturing has occurred.
4
3_ The 4, called the denominator, in the fraction
tells us that we have broken the rectangle into four
compartments, each capable of holding 1 ball.
4
Finally, the 3 or numerator of the fraction tells 3_
us how many of the balls we are taking out of the 4
possible. 4
So now we have the building of the fraction, 3/4. We take a unit, we divide it
into four equal parts, and we take three of the parts.

3_ Numerator-------Number------Count
Fraction Bar-----Fracture-----Break
4 Denominator-----Name--------Name

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 6

3_
The Math Engine can be used to 5
represent fractions using panes to show the
units. Black lines can be drawn on a pane to _1
form a pattern on a rectangular grid. Red
lines can be drawn in the patterns to break 1_ 4
the shape into several equal sized parts. We
can then choose a number of these parts to 3 _2
form a fraction. The diagram on the right
shows 6 different patterns. Each pattern has
been broken into equal sized parts. Finally, _2 3
some of the parts have been colored in. The
fraction that is represented is marked near 9
the appropriate pattern. See whether you _1
agree with the fractions that are shown.

We do not have to have the entire

2
Math Engine Screen on the page to show
fractions. I will just show the shape on the Math Engine and the balls in the pattern to
illustrate various fractions.

_3
4

_1 _3
2 6

_2 6
__
4 12
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 7

Worksheet 1.1
1. What fractions are represented by the following pictures?

_ _ _
_
_

_
_

_ _

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 8

Worksheet 1.2
1. Mark the diagrams to show the fractions?

_1 _2 _1
2 3 8

_3 _1 _2
7 2 4

_6 _1 _2
9 3 3

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 9

Lesson 1.1
Objective: To show the fraction 2/5
Materials: Math Engine, 5 blue balls, 1 peg, 1 pane

1 Mark Math Engine or place a marked pane outlining the

top 5 ball positions in the left column.

2. Place a peg in the sixth hole down from the top of the
left hand column.

3. Place 5 blue balls above the peg and ask the students
how many balls are in the Math Engine.

4. Point out that the balls fill the rectangle you marked.

5. Write 5 on the board to indicate that there are 5 balls in

the rectangle.

6. Put a peg under the two top balls and pull the lower peg,
letting the bottom three balls drop out.

7. Ask the students how many balls are in the rectangle.

8. Point out that the rectangle can hold 5 balls but it only
has two balls in it.

9. Write the fraction 2/5 on the board.

10. Point to the 5. Say that the 5 shows how many balls can go into the rectangle.

11. Point to the 2. Say that the 2 shows how many balls are actually in the rectangle.

12. Tell the students that the fraction is called “two fifths.”

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 10

Lesson 1.2
Objective: To show 1 in relation to a fraction
Materials: Math Engine, 12 blue balls, 6 red balls, 3 green balls, 1 black ball, 1 silver
ball, 1 yellow ball, 8 pegs, 2 panes

1. Place pane marked with 4 rectangles each enclosing six

balls, as shown to the right, on a Math Engine.

2. Put 2 pegs at the bottom of the first rectangle and put six
blue balls on top.

3. Point out to the students that we have one collection of 6

balls, all of which are blue.
1
4. Put 2 pegs at the bottom of the second rectangle and put
in 3 blue and 3 red balls, as shown to the left.

5. Point out to the students that we now have a collection

of 6 balls but not all are blue. There are two subcollections,
one red and one blue, each having 3 balls.

6. There are 2 subcollections, one of which is blue so the

1 blue balls are 1 out of two parts or 1/2 of the balls in the
1 2 collection.

7. Put 2 pegs at the bottom of the third rectangle and put

blue, red, and green balls in as shown on the right.

8. Point out to the students that we now have a collection

of 6 balls but not all are blue. There are now three
subcollections, one green, one red, and one blue, each
having 2 balls.

9. There are 3 subcollections, one of which is blue, so the

1 1
blue balls are 1 out of three parts or 1/3 of the balls in the
collection. 1 2 3
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 11
10. Put 2 pegs at the bottom of the fourth rectangle and put
one blue, red, yellow, silver, black, and green ball in as
shown on the left.

11. Point out to the students that we now have a collection

of 6 balls, not all blue. There are six subcollections, each
having 1 colored ball.

12. There are 6 subcollections, one of which is blue, so the

1 1 1 blue balls are 1 out of six parts or 1/6 of the balls in the
1 2 3 6 collection.

13. Fill up all the rectangles with blue balls.

14. Place a pane with red lines which break up the

rectangle into smaller rectangles as shown to the right.

15. Point out to the students that we do not have to look at

different colors to see the subcollections. We can subdivide
the rectangles into rectangles of the same size to see that
the blue balls occupy the fractional part of the unit
1 1 1
rectangles.
1 2 3 6

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 12

Session 2. Equivalent Fractions

One of the most confusing yet powerful ideas with fractions is the concept of
equivalence. If I cut a pie into two equal pieces and take one of the pieces or I cut the
pie into four equal pieces and take two of the pieces, I will get the same amount of pie
no matter which one I choose. The single piece might be more manageable and less
messy, so some people might prefer the choice in which the pie has been cut into the
fewest number of pieces. This is the same mathematically as asking to pick the fraction
in its lowest terms.

Let’s look at the definition of equality and equivalence. Equal comes from the
Latin word aequalis meaning equal. Equivalent comes from the Latin words aequus,
equal and valere to be strong. 1/2 and 2/4 are not the same but they have equal
strength as fractions. (Strengths is a nine letter English word with one vowel.)

Consider the different ways of looking at 3/4 we saw in the last session.

_3
4
All of these are 3/4 because we have divided the figure into
4 equal parts and colored 3 of them blue. What would the
difference be if we had divided them differently and colored
_3
the same number of balls. Look at the two fractions on the
right. One is a rectangle divided into 4 equal parts and the
4
other is the same rectangle divided into 8 equal parts. We
have colored 3 of the parts in the former rectangle and 6 of _6
the parts in the latter. Which is more? They are not equal
because of the way we formed them, but they have equal 8
power in anything we would want to do with them. They
are essentially the same. They are equivalent. Which is more?

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 13

Another question we can ask

_1 _2 is, “Given a fraction and a
rectangle representing the
2 4 fraction, how many other
fractions which are
equivalent to the first can we
show with the same
_3 6
__ rectangle?” We have an
example of this on the left
6 12 with the 3 x 4 rectangle and
the fraction 1/2. There are 4
fractions that we can show
on the 3 x 4 rectangle which
are equivalent to 1/2. Note that the answer is the same as the number of even divisors
of 12. We can see that the number of balls that are green are the same in each instance
even though we constructed the fraction in a different way.

We now turn our attention to a special collection of rectangles , a special

collection of rectangular arrays of balls, and their relationship to the multiplication
table. The special rectangles and rectangular arrays of balls
are those whose upper left hand corner is in the upper left 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
hand corner of the multiplication table. Take a rectangle 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
whose upper left hand corner is the upper left hand corner 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

of the multiplication table. The number of the 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
multiplication table in the lower right hand corner of the
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
rectangle is the number of balls in the rectangle. If we look
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
at the example on the right, we see a blue 6 x 7 rectangle 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
in the upper left hand corner of the multiplication table. 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
The number of balls in the rectangle is the number in the 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

lower right hand corner of the rectangle, namely 42.

Similarly, if we have a rectangular array of balls in the upper left hand corner of the
multiplication table, the number on the ball in the lower right hand corner of the array is
the number of balls in the array. Looking in the above example, we have a 3 x 7 array
of green balls. The number on the ball in the lower right hand corner of the array of
green balls is 21, which is the number of green balls in the array. This gives us a fast
way of figuring the fraction of green balls in the blue rectangle There are 21 green balls
out of the possible 42 balls in the rectangle. We have the fraction 21/42.

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 14
Let’s take representing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

fractions on the multiplication table 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
with balls and rectangles and show a
way of generating an endless supply
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
2 2x1
__ ___
of equivalent fractions. We start with
the fraction 2/5. As we see on the
5
6
7
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
=
5 5x1
right, 2/5 can be represented as 2 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80

balls out of a possible 5 balls in the 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
rectangle.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
We take the rectangle and 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
make it 2 wide. We now have a 5x2
rectangle which can hold 10 balls
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
4 2x2
__ ___
and we take 4 of them. The rectangle
represents 2/5 but it also represents
5
6
7
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
=
10 5x2
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
4/10.
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
We can continue to add 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
8 2x4
__ ___
columns to the rectangle, generating
more fractions equivalent to 2/5.
5
6
7
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
=
20 5x4
Here we have 4 columns and see that 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
8/20=2/5. 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

If we use a rectangle that is 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

__ 2x9
18 ___
nine balls wide, we have 18/45=2/5.
5
6
7
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
=
45 5x9
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
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 15
We can pull the numbers
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 out of the preceding example
_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
and get a list of fractions
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
equivalent to 2/5. We
eliminate all the numbers in the multiplication table that are
not multiples of 2 or 5 and have two rows. We put one row
on top of the other row and put a fraction bar between
them and we have a list of fractions that are equivalent to
2/5.

2 5 2 / 5

Another point we can notice is that this 4 10 4

/ 10

idea works with columns as well as rows.

6 15 6
/ 15

Look at the partial multiplication table to the

8 20 8
/ 20

right. We can see the fractions that are

10 25 10 / 25
12 30 12
/ 30
equivalent to 2/5 by pulling out the second and 14 35 14
/ 35

fifth column of the multiplication table and 16 40 16

/ 40

standing them side by side. 18 45 18

/ 45
20 50 20 / 50

Of course, if we had a larger multiplication table, we could extend the list of

equivalent fractions as far as we wished.

The multiplication table can help us with another

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
problem encountered with equivalent fractions, namely
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
reducing fractions. If we can find the two numbers in the
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 same column (row), we can go to the first column (row)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 and look at those numbers. The fraction they form is
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 equivalent to the original fraction. Take the fraction 35/63
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 for example. By looking at the multiplication table to the
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
left, we see that 35 and 63 are both in the seventh column.
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
By going to the first column, we find 5 and 9. This means
that 35/63 = 5/9. This change of columns to get an
equivalent fraction in lower terms works because we are
finding a common factor in the numerator and denominator. Note that this method will
reduce a fraction but not necessarily to its lowest terms.

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 16

Worksheet 2.1

1. Show as many fractions as you can which are equivalent to 1/3

using a 4x3 rectangle.

_1 _ _ _
3
2. What fractions does this show are equivalent?

_ _
=

Explain:

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 17

Worksheet 2.2
1. Use the multiplication table to show that 27/63=3/7. Explain all
your reasoning.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60

7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70

8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80

9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Explanation:

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 18

Worksheet 2.3
1. Show that using the multiplication table to reduce a fraction
might give you a fraction that can be reduced again.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60

7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70

8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80

9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Explanation:

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 19

Lesson 2.1
Objective: To show equivalent forms of 6/12
Materials: Math Engine, 24 blue balls, 8 pegs, 1 pane

1. Mark a pane as shown on the right. There will be

four 4x3 rectangles in the four corners with each 1
__ 2
__
rectangle partitioned into different fractional parts by 2 4
red lines.

2. Place 4 pegs on the bottom rectangles and fill the

first two columns in each rectangle.
3
__ 6
__
3. Place 4 pegs on the top rectangles and fill the first 6 12
two columns as before.

4. Each rectangle is the same size and holds the same number of blue balls but
represents a different equivalent fraction.

5. Ask the students to choose the fraction which represents the largest fraction of the
whole. Let the students decide for themselves why dividing something into 12 parts and
taking 6 gives the same result as dividing the same object into 6 parts and taking 3, etc.

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 20

Lesson 2.2
Objective: To show the relationship between rectangular arrays of balls and the
multiplication table.
Materials: 2 Math Engines, 21 green balls, 16 red balls, 9 pegs, 2 multiplication panes

1. Place multiplication panes on 2 Math Engines.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2. Put pegs in the first seven columns of the fourth row of 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
one of the Math Engines. 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

3. Fill the space above the pegs with the 21 green balls. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
4. Point out to the students that the number of balls in the 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
7 x 3 array of green balls is given by the number behind 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
the lower right ball in the array. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

5. Put pegs in the first two columns of the ninth row of the
other Math Engine.
7 x 3 = 21
6. Fill the space above the pegs with the 16 red balls. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
7. Point out to the students that the number of balls in the 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

2 x 8 array of red balls is given by the number behind the 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
lower right ball in the array.
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8. Ask the students if they could look at the multiplication 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
table and find a rectangular array of balls that would have 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
15 balls. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

2 x 8 = 16

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 21

Session 3. Inequality
How do we define inequality for fractions? When we are dealing with counting
numbers or integers the idea of inequality is fairly straightforward. We can look at 4
and 6 or 4 and -3 and tell fairly easily if they are not equal. We also know for two
numbers a and b that a<b, a=b, or a>b. Can we figure out a way to extend this situation
to fractions? Given two fractions a/b and c/d, do we have a/b<c/d, a/b=c/d, or a/b>c/d.
In this session, we will look at a way to compare two fractions.

We want to compare two fractions. Let’s take two fractions and see if we can
figure a way to decide when one is bigger than the other. There are two cases that we
have to consider, the denominators are the same and the denominators are different.

Let’s dispense with the easy case first. Take an

example, say 2/5 and 3/5. We can look at the rectangles
representing the two fractions. Since the denominators _2 _3
are the same, we are using the same rectangle for both <
fractions. We can see that 3/5 has 1 more fifth than 2/5, 5 5
so 3/5 is greater than 2/5, 3/5>2/5, and 2/5 is less than
3/5, 2/5<3/5.

If we can figure out inequality when the denominators

are equal, we have a way of approaching the idea of
inequality for two fractions with unlike denominators. If we
_2 _3 can take two fractions and find equivalent fractions to the
two original fractions which have the same denominator,
5 7 then we can compare the two fractions. We can ask what
figure involves fifths and sevenths. Let’s look at a 5x7
rectangle.

If we take a 5x7 rectangle, then we can represent

_2
both fifths and sevenths. Each row of the rectangle is 1/5 of
the rectangle. Two rows of the rectangle are 2/5. If we look
5
at the columns, we are dealing with sevenths. Each column
of the 5x7 rectangle is 1/7. Hence, three columns of the
rectangle are 3/7. We now have 2/5 and 3/7 represented in _3
the same figure and we can compare them as before.
7
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 22

_2 _2 14
__
= =
5 5 35

15
__ _3 _3
< = =
35 7 7
We have shown in the representation above that 2/5 < 3/7. You may note that the
only math calculation knowledge that we needed was the ability to count to 35. We are
able to speed the process if we do know the multiplication table.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
We have worked using the multiplication table with 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

equivalent fractions. Is there some way we can use it to 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
figure out inequalities? Let’s take two fractions and see
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
whether we can use the table to order them. 4/7 and 5/9 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
seem like good candidates. We have marked 4/7 and 5/9 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
off on the table to the right. Earlier in the session we 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
formed a rectangle to compare two fractions, so let’s 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90

complete a rectangle that encompasses the two fractions. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 The smallest rectangle that contains both the fractions

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
is shown in the figure on the left. We have extended the
two fractions to show the fractions that are equivalent to
them, namely 36/63 and 35/63, which have a common
denominator. We are now in a position to compare the two
fractions. Since 36/63 and 35/63 have a common
denominator and 36 > 35, we know that 36/63 > 35/63.
But 4/7 = 36/63 and 5/9 = 35/63.
So, 4/7 = 36/63 > 35/63 = 5/9.

_4 36 35 _5
__ __
= > =
7 63 63 9
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 23

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1/5
Let’s look at fifths and sevenths again. We will use 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 2/5
part of the multiplication table to order all the proper fifths 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 3/5
and sevenths. If we arrange the multiples of 5 and 7 in 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 4/5

ascending order we have the following: 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

1 2 3 4 5 6
7 7 7 7 7 7

5 < 7 < 10 < 14 < 15 < 20 < 21 < 25 < 28 < 30.
Hence,
5/35 < 7/35 < 10/35 < 14/35 < 15/35 < 20/35 < 21/35 < 25/35 < 28/35 < 30/35.
So,
1/7 < 1/5 < 2/7 < 2/5 < 3/7 < 4/7 < 3/5 < 5/7 < 4/5 < 6/7.

We finish this section with an ordering of proper fourths and sixths using the
multiplication table. This ordering differs from the previous one because some of the
fractions are equivalent.

4 < 6 < 8 < 12 = 12 < 16 < 18 < 20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 1/4

Hence, 2 4 6 8 10 12 2/4

4/24 < 6/24 < 8/24 < 12/24 = 12/24 < 16/24 < 18/24 < 20/24. 3 6 9 12 15 18 3/4
4 8 12 16 20 24 4/4
So,
1 2 3 4 5 6
1/6 < 1/4 < 2/6 < 2/4 = 3/6 < 4/6 < 3/4 < 5/6. 6 6 6 6 6 6

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 24

Worksheet 3.1
1. Show:

_3 _2 _2 _5
_1 _2 > <
<
3 3 4 4 6 6

2. Write the fraction inequality that is shown by the diagram.

Place a fraction in the _ and < or > in the .

_ _ _ _

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 25

Worksheet 3.2
1. Compare and explain:

_2 _3
3 4
< or = or >

2. Compare and explain:

_7 _3
9 4
< or = or >

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 26

Worksheet 3.3

1. Use this part of the multiplication table to show which

fraction is smaller 2/5 or 3/8.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
_2 _3 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
5 8 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
< or = or > 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Explain your reasoning:

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 27

Worksheet 3.4
1. Use the partial multiplication table to list the proper fourths and
ninths in ascending order:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1/4

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 2/4

3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 3/4

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 4/4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

Place a fraction in the

_ and < or = in the .

_ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _

Explain your reasoning.

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 28

Lesson 3.1
Objective: To compare two fractions
Materials: Math Engine, 14 blue balls, 15 green balls, pane

1. Put a pane that has two 5 x 7 rectangles onto the Math

Engine.

2. Put pegs and green and blue balls so that there are green
balls in 3/7 of the first column in the first rectangle and
blue balls in 2/5 of the first row in the second rectangle.

3. Ask the students which do they think is the larger

fraction. Say that we can compare the fractions if they are
3
__ 2
__ fractions of the same unit rectangle.
7 5

4. Put pegs and balls so that 3/7 is represented by the

equivalent fraction 15/35 and 2/5 by 14/35.

5. Ask the students which looks like the larger fraction

now.

3
__ 15
__ 14
__ 2
__
7 = 35 35 = 5

6. Move the pegs and the balls in the side containing the
sevenths. Moving the balls in the rectangle does not change
the fraction 3/7 or 15/35.

7. Ask the students which is the larger fraction. Since the

unit rectangles are the same size and there are more green
balls by one, 3/7 > 2/5.
3
__ 15
__ 14
__ 2
__
7 = 35 > =
35 5

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 29

Session 4. Adding (Subtracting) Fractions

with Like Denominators
In mathematics, when one does something new, it is helpful if the new action or
idea can be linked to an idea or action one already knows. We are familiar with adding
and subtracting whole numbers. Adding and subtracting fractions should be an
extension of adding and subtracting whole numbers. Each whole number can be viewed
as a fraction, for example, 2 = 6/3. When we add whole numbers by the rules for
adding fractions, we should still get the same answer. 4/2 + 6/3 had better be 4.

When we deal with adding fractions with like denominators, we are essentially
adding whole numbers. In this session, we will see that adding fractions is the same as
adding whole numbers except that we change the picture just a bit.

We start by looking at what it means to add two numbers, say 1

and 3. We can view this as 1 ball and 3 balls in the Math Engine and
have the picture look like the diagram on the right. Each ball is counted
as one.
1+3=4
Let’s consider the problem 1/5 + 3/5 = 4/5. If we draw a
diagram of this using balls we have the picture at the right. The first
column has 1 ball out of a possible 5 in the unit. The middle column
has 3 balls out of possible 5 in the unit. If we add them together we
get the last column with 4 out of the possible 5. The diagram is the
1+3=4 same as the diagram for addition of whole numbers with respect to the
balls. The only difference is the lines defining the units. In this case
5 5 5 we have a unit with 5 balls.

If we wanted to consider the problem 1 + 3 = 4 in terms of

fractions, we could redo the first diagram and make it clear that each
ball counts as a whole unit and the unit is divided into one part. This
would change the way we look at the problem to 1/1 + 3/1 = 4/1. This
is also a way to view whole numbers as fraction. 1 corresponds to 1+3=4
1/1, 2 corresponds to 2/1, etc. We can see from the diagram on the left
that if 1 + 3 = 4, then 1/1 +3/1 = 4/1. 1 1 1
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 30
We almost forgot to look at the structure of the new words we have encountered,
namely, add and subtract. The word add comes from the Latin ad to and dare to give.
Hence, to add is to give to. Subtract also comes from the Latin sub under and trahere to
draw, hence to draw under. It could also come from the Latin subtrahere to draw away
underneath.

We now turn our attention to subtracting one fraction from

another when they both have the same denominator. This follows the
same line of reasoning as the addition with like denominators. We
will do one example to demonstrate the similarity.

Let’s do 7/9 - 5/9 and find the difference. We will show it as

steps on a portion of the Math Engine as shown in the diagram on the
right.. In the first column we show 7/9 with dark blue balls. In the
middle column, we lighten the color of the 5 balls we will subtract. In
the last column, we show the result of removing the 5 balls, the result
of drawing away underneath the 5 light blue balls. 7 - 5 =2
9 9 9
Since this is a fairly easy seesion to understand, we will look at one more idea
about fractions. One could say that we are looking at fraction etiquette. The idea of
fraction is to break apart and take a piece. What if we take all the pieces or more than
all the pieces. This is not “proper.” We are thinking of fractions like 3/3 or 5/3. How
can consider these. If we have 2 objects each broken into 3 pieces, we could take 4 of
the six pieces. Now each piece is a third or 1/3, so the 4 pieces are 4/3. This could
come up if we add 2/3 and 2/3. Let’s look at it from the point of view of the balls.

_2 _2 _4 1_
3 + 3 = 3 1 3
If the numerator is a larger number than the denominator, then this is considered
“improper.” We then form a “mixed” number consisting of a whole number and a
“proper” fraction. Mathematicians like to push the envelope and extend the concepts
but they can still feel uncomfortable.

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 31

Worksheet 4.1
1.Do the indicated operation.

_4 _2
3 + 3 =
Show diagrams and explain.

2.Do the indicated operation.

_9
4 - _3
4 =
Show diagrams and explain.

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 32

Lesson 4.1
Objective: To add two fractions with a like denominator
Materials: Math Engine, 4 blue balls, 3 green balls, 3 pegs, 1 pane

1. Put a pane marked with units containing 8 balls on the

Math Engine.

2. Place pegs in the first and third columns to hold 4 and 3

balls respectively.

3. Put 4 blue balls in the first column and 3 green balls in

the third column.

_4
8 + 38_
4. Place a peg in the second column at the bottom of the
rectangle containing 8 balls.

5. Put the blue balls and then the green balls in the second
column.

6. Ask the students why we can just add the balls without
any problems. (Every ball represents 1/8 of a unit.)
_4
8 + 38_ = 78_ 7. The answer we get is 7/8.

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 33

Session 5. Adding (Subtracting) Fractions

with Unlike Denominators
1/6 + 3/4 = ?. If every student could do this problem, understand why it works,
and be able to explain it, how happy all teachers would be. This is the type of problem
that we will tackle in this session.

What do we know about adding fractions? We know that we can just add the
numerators if the denominators are the same. We also know how to find equivalent
fractions by multiplying the numerators and denominators by the same number. We will
combine these two ideas using the Math Engine and add fractions. We will also see
how finding the lowest common denominator is represented using the balls.

We have seen, in the session on inequality, how we use rectangles to find figures
on which we can represent 2 different denominators. Let’s look at 1/3 and 3/5. We will
use a 3 x 5 rectangle to deal with thirds and fifths. Each row is a third and each column
is a fifth.

_1 _3 _1
3 + 5 = 3 + _3
5
__5 9
__
= 15 + 15
14
__
= 15
We will now tackle subtraction of two fractions with unlike denominators. This is
the inverse of addition just as with the natural numbers. With addition we combine two
clumps of balls and count the result. With subtraction we start with a clump and take
some away. We use the same techniques as we do with addition. We can subtract if we
have common denominators so we use rectangles to find a common denominator.

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 34

_1
_3
5 - = _1
3
_3
5 - 3

= 9
__
15
- 5
__
15
4
__
= 15
4
__
= 15
What have we done? We started with the simplest representation of the fractions
3/5 and 1/3, 5 x 1 and a 1 x 3 rectangles. Since these two rectangles are different sizes,
they are incompatible for adding or subtracting. We must find a rectangle which can
represent 1/5 and 1/3 at the same time. If we look at the 5 x 3, we see that each column
is a fifth and each row is a third. We then change our point of view and consider each
ball as 1/35 of the whole rectangle. We now have fractions which are equivalent
fractions but which have a common denominator, 35. We can now add or subtract the
two fractions to get an answer.

We turn our attention to the mysterious least common denominator. What in the
world is it and how can we show what it is? We have rules about finding the greatest
common factor and dividing the product of the two denominators by it to obtain the
least common denominator. What does it all mean? What does it have to do with
anything?

Let’s take the smallest two numbers that will give us a meaningful look at a
greatest common divisor, namely 4 and 6. we will look at the sum 1/6 + 3/4. We know
by all the rules drummed into us that 4 x 6 = 24 is a common denominator, but 12 is the
LEAST common denominator because 2 is the GREATEST common factor of 4 and 6
and 24/2 = 12.

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 35
We start with the two fractions, 1/6 and 3/4.
Observe that there is no easy or obvious way to add
these fractions. We must change the way we look at _1 _3
the fractions. We must find equivalent ways to look
at the fractions so that the fractions can be combined.
6 4
The way that we have done it in the
past is to form a rectangle whose sides are
the two denominators in length. In this case,
_1 _3 we multiply 4 by 6 to get a 4 x 6 rectangle.
If we look at the rows and columns of this
6 4 rectangle, we have the representation of 4ths
and 6ths in one object.

Here is where we diverge from our previous technique and add one step to the
process. We notice that 2 is a common divisor of 4 and 6. This means that we can
divide the 4 x 6 rectangle into 2 pieces in two different ways. Each of the pieces has 12
balls in it.

_1 _3
6 4
Even though the new rectangles are different shapes, they have the same number
of balls in them.

_1 2
__ _3 9
__
6 12 4 12
We are in a position to add the two fractions. We have denoted or named an
object from which we can easily take 1/6 and 3/4; we have found a common
denominator. Indeed, we have found the smallest object, the least common
denominator, for which this is possible. Let’s see what the addition looks like.
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 36

We start with the two fractions and form a common rectangle containing both 4ths
and 6ths.

_1 _3 _1 _3
6 + 4 = 6 + 4
We have not changed the size of the 4 x 6 rectangle before. We just used the
rectangle whose dimensions are the product of the denominators. Here, we have
divided by the greatest common factor of the two denominators and obtained the
smallest rectangle we could getting what will be the least common denominator.

1
__ 3
__
= 6 + 4
We now take the equivalent fractions with a rectangle having 12, not 24, balls.
The two rectangles are not the same shape but they contain the same number of balls.
Each ball is one twelfth of its rectangle, so we can add the balls.

2
__ 9
__
= 12 + 12
We can choose either of the two rectangles to represent the final sum.

11
__
= 12
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 37

Worksheet 5.1
Add 1/4 and 2/5. Show all work. Explain each step.

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 38

Worksheet 5.2
Subtract 2/3 from 3/4. Show all work. Explain each step.

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 39

Worksheet 5.3
We want to add 1/6 and 4/9.

Picture 1/6 and 4/9 with rectangles showing equivalent fractions in

the least common denominator.

Add the 1/6 and 4/9 and represent the sum in a rectangle below.

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 40

Lesson 5.1
Objective: To add two fractions with unlike denominators
Materials: Math Engine, 5 green balls, 9 blue balls, 8 pegs, 1 pane

1. Place pane with 5 x 3 rectangles tiling the Math Engine.

2. Place 1 green ball in the first column representing 1/3.

3. Place 3 blue balls in the first row representing 3/5.

4. Point out to the students that the green and blue balls
represent different fractions, the green, thirds and the blue,
fifths.
_1 _3
3 + 5
5. Ask the students how we can change the fractions so
that we can add them.

6. Put pegs in the second row of the upper left rectangle to

form 1/3 of the 15 ball unit rectangle.

7. Put pegs in the first three columns of the fourth row of

the upper right rectangle to form 3/5 of the 15 ball unit
rectangle.
_1 _3 _5 _9
3 + 5 = 15 + 15

8. Since each ball now represents one fifteenth, we can

add them all.

9. Place pegs along the bottom of the upper right unit

rectangle and move the green balls to add the fractions.
(The place the green balls came from is indicated.)

10. We have added the two fractions and find that the
answer is 14/15. _5 _9 14_
+
15 15 = 15

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 41

Session 6. Multiplying Fractions

The rule for multiplying is the easiest of the rules for computing with fractions.
To multiply two fractions, multiply their numerators and denominators. It is so simple
that one can overlook what it means and how it developed. We will look closely at
multiplication and see why it is appropriate to use the rule.

Multiply and multiplex come from similar roots. The Latin multus, many, and
plicare, to fold, give us the image of many fold. In math then, to multiply would be to
have many fold copies of something.

With the Math Engine, it is easy to see whether 4 3x4

you have multiple copies of the same number. As we
see in the first diagram on the right, there are 4 balls in
the first column. We can also see that there are 3
columns of 4 balls in the second diagram, so we say
there are 4 balls taken 3 times or 3 times 4 balls. It is
generally written 3 x 4. We can also think of 3 x 4 as taking 3 copies of the collection
of 4 balls or 3 of the 4 balls. So, 3 of something is the same as 3 times something. Note
that we form a rectangular array of balls when we line them up this way. Can we find a
similar array if we are multiplying fractions? We shall see that this is indeed the case.

There are at least two cases we must consider to make the transition from
multiplying whole numbers to multiplying fractions. The easier case is multiplying
something a whole number times. The more difficult case is multiplying something a
fractional amount of times. For example, we must decide what we mean by taking
something 2/3 times.

The idea of taking a fraction a whole number of

times is really no different from taking any number of 4/5 3 x 4/5
things a whole number times. We are simply deciding
to make a certain whole number copies of an object. It
is still the same rectangular ball area, the only
difference is setting the unit. The diagram at the right
shows what happen when we choose the unit so that
each ball represents 1/5. If we think of 3 as 3/1 then the product would be 12/5, which
is the product, as we can see from the diagram.

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 42
The second case is a little more delicate. What does it mean to take 2/3 of an
object or have an object 2/3 times.

Let’s look at taking 3 copies of 4 objects a little 4 3x4

closer. If we take 3 copies of the four balls in the first
diagram on the right, we find that we have 3 green balls,
3 blue balls, 3 yellow balls, and 3 red balls in the
second diagram. We have taken 3 copies of the four
balls by taking 3 copies of each ball in the collection.
This gives us a way of looking at taking a collection of
objects or units a fractional number of times. If we want to take 1/2 of a collection of
units, we can do so if we take one half of each one. It is impossible to chop up the balls
but this is not necessary. We are back to defining what we mean by the unit. Let’s look
at a way to take 4 units 1/2 times and 4 units 2/3 times. We start with 1/2.

4 1/2 x 4 1/2 x 4 = 2

If we want to take 1/2 of 4 units, then we want to take 1/2 of each unit. To take
1/2 of a unit, we must have a good number of balls in a unit, namely a number that is
easily divisible by 2. 2 seems like the most appropriate number to take. In the first
representation of 4 in the diagram above, we take a unit having 2 balls. We can easily
take 1/2 of each unit, as shown in the middle diagram above. Note that this
configuration is a rectangular array. In the third diagram above, we have moved the
balls to make counting easier. We can see that 1/2 x 4 = 2 in this representation.
2
4 2
/3 x 4 /3 x 4 = 2 2/3

If we want to multiply 4 by 2/3 then each unit in the first diagram is divided into
3 parts so that each ball is 1/3. We take 2 of them from each unit to get the middle
diagram. Note that it is a rectangular array of balls. We have rearranged the balls in the
last diagram to make counting the units easier. We have 2/3 x 4 = 8/3 = 2 2/3. Also
note that the multiplication rule holds if we consider the problem 2/3 x 4/1.
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We finish this session by multiplying a fraction by a fraction. Let’s take an
example. The general case would be similar. How about 4/5 x 6/7?

4/5

_6 _6
7 7

_4 _6
5 x 7
Let’s go over the entire process. We are trying to find 6/7, 4/5 times. This is the
same as 4/5 times 6/7 or 4/5 of 6/7. We first notice that we are dealing with fifths and
sevenths. The first number we consider is 6/7. Since we are dealing with sevenths we
set the unit on the far left to have 7 balls. 6/7 is marked out. We are also dealing with
fifths. Each ball in the calculation will have to be split into five equal parts, so we
extend the unit making each ball into five balls. The unit is now a 5 x 7 rectangle with
35 balls in it. Each ball is now a thirty-fifth. We take 4 of the 5 balls that each seventh
has been broken into. We now have 4 x 6 balls in the product. Since each ball is 1/35,
the product 4/5 x 6/7 = 24 / 35. Please note that using this definition of fraction
multiplication we have the product of the numerators is the numerator of the product
and the product of the denominators is the denominator of the product. Also notice that
the product is represented by a rectangular array.

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 44
We conclude this session by looking at the multiplication of two fractions, one
proper and one improper, on the Math Engine with the multiplication pane in place. We
can see that the number in the lower right hand corner of the upper left unit is the
denominator of the product. The numerator is the number under the lower right ball in
the rectangular array representing the product. We note, once again, to multiply two
fractions, multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60

7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70

8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80

9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90

10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

_7
4
x = _3
5
21
__
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 45

Worksheet 6.1
Show the following:

5/9 x 7/2 3/8 x 9/2

Show 1/9 x 1/5 Show what times 9/4 is 45/28.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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 46

Lesson 6.1
Objective: To multiply one fraction by another
Materials: Math Engine, 2 green balls, 10 red balls, 6 blue balls, 2 panes

We will multiply 2/5 by 2/3, but first we have to

review what it means to multiply by a whole number.

1. Place 5 red balls in the first two columns of the Math

Engine.

2. Tell the students that 2 x 5 is the same as 5 things taken

2 times. That is, we take two copies of each ball and count
how many we have. Place 5 red balls in the second column
and point out we have 2x5 or 10 red balls. 2x5

_2 3. Put on 1 x 5 rectangular grid and 2 green balls in the

5
first column.

4. Ask the students how we can take 2/3 of those two

balls. Point out that multiplying by 2 means take 2 of each
ball, so we should take 2/3 of each ball.

5. Have the students note that we can take a third of each

ball if we change to an equivalent fraction where each ball
becomes three balls. We will change the color to blue and say that each green ball is
worth 3 blue balls.
2/3
6. Put on a 3 x 5 rectangular grid and put 6 blue balls in 2_
the upper left rectangle as shown to the right. We now 5
have the blue balls as 2/5 of the 3 x 5 unit rectangle.

7. Take 2/3 of each row of the blue balls. The unit

rectangle is 3 x 5 or 15 balls and the number of balls we
have is 2 x 2 or 4 balls, so the answer is 4/15.

_2 x _2 = ___
2x2
=
_4
3 5 3x5 15
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 47

Session 7. Canceling Common Factors While

Multiplying Fractions
Canceling common factors when multiplying fractions can simplify calculations
and is an important concept to take into algebra. Symbolically, the rule for multiplying
fractions, commutativity of mulpltiplication, and rules of equivalent fractions are the
justification for canceling common factors when multiplying fractions. Is there a
concrete representation of canceling common factors on the Math Engine? Yes! We will
explore this representation in session 7.

Canceling common factors on the Math Engine when multiplying fractions

involves going back to the original definition of fraction and monkeying with the unit.
Let’s take a closer look at the process of multiplying fractions and separate out some of
its important features.We will look first at 3/5 x 5/8 which is pictured on the left in the
diagram below. We are going to concentrate on the units so they have been emphasized
and the ball color has been muted. A fraction has two basic numbers, the number of
elements the unit has been broken into (denominator) and the number of these units we
have taken (numerator). Let’s look more closely at the unit and play with it. In the
diagrams below, we have taken the problem 3/5 x 5/8 and represented it on the Math
Engine with the multiplication pane and a pane showing the unit rectangles. We rotate
the unit pane around the blue diagonal line and put it back on the Math Engine. We
have NOT changed the fraction, but now it is in the form we have seen before for
equivalent fractions. We have canceled out the common factor 5.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

_3 _5 _3 _5 _3
5 x 8 = 8 x = 5 8
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
We will next do a fraction multiplication where 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
the factors are more deeply buried in the problem and 3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

not quite as obvious as before. The multiplication 4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
problem 3/8 x 4/9 is pictured to the right. We will flip
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
the unit, look for different equivalences, and then 7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
multiply the reduced fractions. 8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
_3
8 x _4
9
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 We have rotated the unit pane around the diagonal in
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 the diagram to the left. This has interchanged the
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
denominators. Instead of 3/8 x 4/9, we have 3/9 x 4/8.
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
This allows us to find the equivalences 3/9 = 1/3 and 4/
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
8 = 1/2 by splitting up the unit into a different pattern.
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

_3
9 x _4
8
1 2 3

We can regroup the balls into a pattern that

simplifies the multiplication problem to 1/3 x 1/2 as 1 1 2 3

shown in the diagram to the right. We have eliminated

two factors, 3 and 4, in the numerator and denominator
making the problem a much easier one. 2 2 4 6

_1 _1 _1
3 x = 2 6
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 49

In the last part of this session we will look at the important mathematical concept
of the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal. Take a fraction. We want to find another
fraction called the reciprocal so that, when we multiply the two, the product is 1. Let’s
pick a typical ordinary fraction like 5/7. What fraction do we have to multiply 5/7 by to
get a product of 1? Considering what we just did with canceling we must have a factor
of 7 in the numerator and a factor of 5 in the denominator. 7/5 looks like a logical
guess. We will see why this works.

_7 _5 _7 _5
5 x 7 7 x =1 5
The figure on the left shows the product 7/5 x 5/7. If we look at the unit, we find
that we have a 7 x 5 rectangle. If we look at the balls, we find that we have a 5 x 7
rectangular array. The two are not the same but have the same number of spaces for
balls. If we rotate the unit rectangular grid around the green diagonal, as we did before,
the unit rectangle and rectangular grid align with each other so that the rectangular
array fills the unit rectangle exactly. This is the same as saying that the balls represent
the number 1. Thus, 7/5 x 5/7 = 1. So 7/5 and 5/7 are reciprocals or multiplicative
inverses of each other.

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 50

Worksheet 7.1
1. Cancel common factors then multiply 5/6 x 4/7.
Show a representation of the original problem and the solution.
Explain what you are doing.

2. What is the reciprocal of 4/5? Show that it is the reciprocal.

Explain what you are doing.

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 51

Session 8. Dividing Fractions

Of all the operations, division of fractions is the most puzzling. Multiplying is
simple, multiply numerators and denominators. Addition and subtraction are
complicated and convoluted. But division is simple but strange. Invert and multiply.
Why? We will see why in this session.

The Latin does not give us much help. Dividere is to divide. The concept is old
and important.

We must review what it means to divide whole

numbers since we will see that the operation carries over to
fractions without modification. If we have 17 balls, as
shown on the right, and want to divide them among 7
persons, we would give one ball to each person. If there
were enough, we would give each person another ball.
...and so on. Each time we give a ball to each person, we
subtract 7 balls from the number we have to give. Dividing
by 7 is asking how many groups of 7 balls are there in 16.

We can show this easily in the Math Engine as seen

in the diagram to the left. Each column has 7 balls in it. We
are asking how many columns of 7 balls there are. We can
think of the answer as 2 with a remainder of 3. We can also
think of the answer in terms of fractions. Since we are
asking how many sevens there are in 17, we can view the
problem as one in which the unit has changed. Instead of a
unit being one ball, we now have the unit consisting of
seven balls. Each ball is 1/7 of a unit. Dividing 17 by 7
gives us an answer of 2 3/7. We will use this way of
looking at division when we divide one fraction by another.

We will study division by fractions in two steps. First we will divide whole
numbers by fractions. We will then consider dividing one fraction by another. We are
going to start by taking the whole number 3 and dividing it successively by 1/2, 2/2,
3/2, 4/2, 5/2, 6/2, 7/2, and 8/2. We will display the results all together so that we can
see the changes that result as we alter the denominator. Since we will be dividing 3 by
multiples of 1/2 we will display 3 in units having 2 balls, that is each ball is 1/2 a unit.
We will then do the same thing but dividing by multiples of 1/3. With thirds we have to
start with a unit consisting of three balls.
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 52

_1 _6 _2 _6
3 3/ = =6
2 1 3/ = =3 2 2

_3 _6 _4 _6 _2 _5 _6 _1
3/ = =2
2 3 3/ = =1
2 4 4 3/ = =1
2 5 5

_6 _6 _7 _6 _8 _6
3/ = =1
2 6 3/ = 2 7 3/ = 2 8
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 53

_1 _9 _2 _9 _1
3 3/ = =9
3 1 3/ = =4
3 2 2

_3 _9 _4 _9 _1 _5 _9 _4
3/ = =3
3 3 3/ = =2
3 4 4 3/ = =1
3 5 5

_6 _9 _3 _7 _9 _2 _8 _9 _1
3/ = =1
3 6 6 3/ = =1
3 7 7 3/ = =1
3 8 8

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 54
Let’s take a fraction and see what it would take to
divide it by another fraction. Take 3/4 and divide by 5/6. If
we think about dividing 17 by 7, we had to ask how many
7 unit collections we could take out of 17 units. The 7 and
17 must be counted in the same units. We did the same
thing when we divided 3 by 4/3. We had 3 and 4/3 repre-
sented in the same unit, namely a unit with 3 balls. What
figure allows us to deal simultaneously with 3/4 and 5/6?
That’s right, a rectangle! In particular, a 4 x 6 or a 6 x4
rectangle.

We first have to set up the 3/4 of a unit. We have done

this before. We take a 6 x 4 and fill 3 of its columns with
balls. This represents the fraction 3/4.

We must now ask how many 5/6 units we can fill

with this 3/4 unit of balls. We have set up a grid of 4 x 5
rectangles which has been superimposed on the 4 x 6 grid
of rectangles that was our original unit. the 4 x 5 rectangle
is 5/6 of the 4 x 6 rectangle. In the picture on the right, we
have the new 4 x 5 unit rectangular grid on top of the old
rectangular 4 x 6 unit grid and the 3/4 unit rectangular ball
array.

We move the balls so that they are all in one of the

new units. This allows us to calculate the answer to the
division problem. The new unit can contain 4 x 5 or 20
balls. We have 3 x 6 or 18 balls in the 3/4 so 18/20 is an
answer to dividing 3/4 by 5/6.

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 55
We said at the beginning of the session that we would show that invert and
multiply follows from dividing a fraction by another fraction with the Math Engine.
Let’s look more closely at the representation for division of filling rectangular areas
with rectangular arrays of balls. We will use the problem we just calculated, 3/4
divided be 5/6. We have modified the diagram by not putting the whole grid of the new
unit. We can see the old 4 x 6 rectangular unit grid in black. 3/4 represented by green
balls filling 3 out of a possible 4 columns in the old unit. The upper left rectangle in the
new rectangular grid indicating 5/6, marked in blue. To divide 3/4 by 5/6 we end up
dividing the number of green balls, which is 3 x 6, by the number of balls the new unit
can hold, which is 4 x 5. But this is the result we get if we invert 5/6 and multiply it by
3/4.

4x5
3
x
6

_3 _5
4 6 / = 3____
x6
4x5 = _3
4 x _6
5

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 56

1 2 3 4

We are going to add the multiplication table to the 2 4 6 8

problem 3/4 divided by 5/6 to make getting an answer
easier. In the diagram to the right we have taken the 3 6 9 12
original unit 4 x 6 rectangle and placed the multiplication
table on top. The green balls represent 3/4 and the blue 4 8 12 16
rectangle represents 5/6. We can see that we can read the
answer, 18/20, right off the multiplication table. 5 10 15 20

6 12 18 24

We conclude this session by looking at the representations for various fraction

division problems.

1 2 3 4 5

2 4 6 8 10

3 6 9 12 15

4 8 12 16 20

5 10 15 20 25

6 12 18 24 30

7 14 21 28 35

_3 _2
5 7 / = 3____
x7
5x2 = _3
5 x = _7
2
21
__
10
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 57

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 4 6 8 10 12 14

3 6 9 12 15 18 21

4 8 12 16 20 24 28

5 10 15 20 25 30 35

6 12 18 24 30 36 42

7_ _6
/ =
4 5
7____
x5
4x6 = _7
4 x = _5
6
35
__
24

11
__
=1 24
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 58

Worksheet 8.1
1. Calculate: 2/3 divided by 1/2. Show all
work and explain.

1. Calculate: 1/3 divided by 3/4. Show all

work and explain.

3. Calculate: 4/3 divided by 4/3. Show all

work and explain.

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 59

Lesson 8.1
Objective: To divide one fraction by another
Materials: Math engine, 18 green balls, 4 pegs, 2 panes 3/4

1. Put on pane with black 4x6 rectangular grid.

2. Place pegs in the first three holes on the second row of

holes in the Math Engine.

3. Put in 3 green balls, one above each of the pegs.

4. Tell the students that this represents the fraction 3/4,

because we have 3 of the places filled in the first four.

5. Tell the students that we want to divide this fraction, 3/4, by the fraction 5/6, i.e.we
are asking how many 5/6 are there in 3/4. We have to change the machine so that it
represents fourths and sixths. If we consider the 4x6 rectangle, we see each row is a
sixth and each column is a fourth.

3/4 6. Add enough green balls to fill 3/4 of the top black
4x6 unit rectangle, namely, 3 columns.
_5 7. Place the pane with the red 4x5 unit rectangle on the
6 Math Engine.

8. Tell the students that the new unit is 5/6 of the old
unit.

9. Rearrange the green balls so that they fill the red

rectangles, starting at the top left.

10. Point out that there are 20 places for balls in each new
unit rectangle and we have 18 balls, so the answer is 18/20.

_3 _5 = ___
3x6 _
18
4 / 6 4x5
= 20
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 60

Session 9. Ratio and Proportion

Ratio and proportion, Latin ratio et proportio, reckoning and analogy, are
intimately related to fractions and incredibly important in real life. A ratio is a fraction
and a proportion is an equivalence of fractions. When we say that 1/2 = 2/4, we are
stating a proportion.

How do we encounter proportions in real life? We deal with ratio and proportion
whenever we encounter a rate.

Suppose we are traveling in a car on a trip and

525
___ _? we find that we have gone 525 miles in 10 hours and 24

10.4 = 7
minutes. If we have another 326 miles to go and 7
hours before we have to be at our destination, can we
get there on time if we maintain our speed or do we
have to go faster?

A recipe that feeds 4 people calls for 1/4 4

___ 14
__
teaspoon of a spice. If we are having a dinner
party for 7 couples, how much spice will we
need?
1/4 = ?

1
___ ?
___ I can treat 2.5 acres of a crop with a quart

2.5 = 18.5
of pesticide. How much pesticide will I need if I need
to treat 18.5 acres?

These are just three examples. We could come up with scads more, anywhere a
rate would apply.

How do we solve a proportion? How does it appear on the Math Enginetm? We

will start with a simple proportion.

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 61
We might be tempted to start with the
1_ ?_
2 3 = proportion, 1 is to 2 as what is to 3 because the
numbers are small and easy to work with. I think this
would be a mistake, for we need some complexity to
see what is going on. We will come back to this
Too difficult? example after we do an easier proportion problem.

2_ ?_
We will start with an easier problem, namely, 2 is to 5 as
what is to 7. How can we tackle this problem on the Math
Enginetm; what does the problem look using balls? 5= 7
Easier?
We are dealing with fractions. The fractions are fifths
and sevenths. If we were working with equivalences or
adding fractions, we would be looking for a structure that
would handle fifths and sevenths. What about a 7 x 5
rectangle (or a 5 x 7 rectangle)? We will use just part of the
Math Engine, so we will just display the part that is
involved and not picture the whole face.

The rows are fifths and the columns are sevenths. In

the diagram to the right, the green balls are 2/5 of the _2
rectangle. If we move them around, they still are 2/5 of the
rectangle. 5
Let’s put the green balls in columns, as in
_2 2_4/5 the diagram on the left. We have not added or
subtracted any balls, so the balls are 2/5 of the
5 7 rectangle. But now we can look at the balls as
sevenths and find we have 24/5 sevenths.

2_ 24/5
___
5 = 7
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 62
Let’s go back and see how this relates to the solution of the proposition in the
usual algebraic way.

_2 _y
= 5 7
2x7
__
5 = y
4
2/ =y 5

What are we doing with the balls? We take a shape that can be used to represent
both fifths and sevenths. We then move the shape to change 2/5 to the appropriate
number of sevenths. If we look at the pictures and think of them in terms of whole

2x7
___
2 2x7 5
numbers we observe something interesting. The change in the pictures represents the
algebraic solution of the proportion. Take 2, multiply by 7, then divide by 5.

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 63
We are now in a position to solve the proportion, 1 is to 2 as what is to 3. Let’s
look at a 3 x 2 rectangle.

1_ 11/2
___
2 = 3

What about the proposition, 1 is to 3 as what is to 2?

2
1_ ___/3
3 = 2

We can apply the idea of a proportion to percentage problems. First, let’s look at
the derivation of percent. In Latin, centum is 100. Percent is per centum or per 100. So
we see that 15% is 15 percent is 15 per hundred is 15/100. 15% of 30 is 15/100 x 30. If
15% x 30 = y, then this is the same as 15/100=y/30. We have a proportion which we
have learned how to solve.

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 64

Worksheet 9.1
1. Take the proportion and draw the picture representing it. What
other proportions can you form from this one. Explain.

_2 3_
6 = 9

2. Solve the proportion and put the answer in the rectangle.

Explain.

_3 _
4 = 6

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 65

Worksheet 9.2
1. Take the fact that 4 x 9 = 6 x 6, as shown 1
2
2
4
3
6
4
8
5 6 7 8
10 12 14 16 18
9

in the multiplication table on the right and 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27

generate as many proportions as you can. 4

5
8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Picture and explain. 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54

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 66

Lesson 9.1
Objective: To work the proportion problem, 2/5 = x/7
Materials: Math Engine, 14 blue balls, 8 pegs, 2 panes

1. Place pane on Math Engine with 1x5 unit rectangles.

_2
5
2. Pace a peg and two green balls in the first column.

3. Tell the students that the balls represent the fraction

2/5.

4. Ask them how many sevenths they think equal 2/5.

5. Tell them that we need to represent sevenths.

_2 6. Replace the 1x5 unit rectangular grid with a 7x5 grid.

5
7. Put pegs and balls so that the green balls fill the top
two rows in the 7x5 unit rectangle.

8. Point out to the students that the balls fill up 2/5 of the
unit rectangle and will fill up 2/5 of the rectangle even if
we move them.

9. Move the green balls so they fill columns in the 7x5 unit rectangle starting from the
left.
4
10. Point out to the students that there are 2 /5 columns
that are filled with green balls, so that 2 4/5 sevenths is _2
the same as 2/5. 5

4
2 /5
____ _2
7 = 5
__
2/4
5

7
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 67

Session 10. Wrap-up and Discussion

Discussion, Latin dis- apart and quatere to shake, consider and argue the pros
and cons. What have we seen? We have the following:
1. A definition of fraction
2. When fractions are really the same or equivalent
3. When one fraction is less than another fraction
4. How to add and subtract fractions
5. How to multiply and divide fractions
6. How to work with ratios and proportions

In this final seesion, I would like you to write a one-page paper exploring several
ideas. I would like you to state anything that you saw in the first nine sessions which
was new to you. We have all worked with fractions most of our lives. Was there
anything that you saw that put fractions in a new perspective? The second idea to write
about is how you feel you could put what you have learned into use in your classroom.
Is there anything that you have seen here that you would like to try with students,
especially those who are not understanding the usual presentation? Finally, I would like
to have suggestions on how you would like to see the course changed. Which parts
were useful, new and interesting? Which were ones you already knew and did not have
to go over? What hand-outs and blackline masters would you like to have and use in
your classroom?

You will write for half, (89/178), of an hour and then we will discuss what you
have written.

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