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- 9 +4x = 36 - 4(x- .
Combinelike terms on theleftside: - 9 = 36 - 4(x -
NUMBER SYSTEMS
The natural numbers are the numbers we count with:
1, 2. 3, 4, 5, 6, , 27, 28,..
Thewhole numbers are the numberswe count with and zero:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, .
The integers are the numbers we count with, their negatives.
andzero: ..., -3,-2, -1,0, I, 2, 3, .
-Thepositiveintegersare thenaturalnumbers.
-Thenegotfve integers arethe"minus" natural numbers:
-1,-2.-3,-4,.
The rcmonal numbers are all numbers expressible as
fractions. The fractions may beproper(less than one; Ex: k) or
improper (more than one; Ex: ft). Rational numbers can be
positive (Ex: 5.125 = -) or negative (Ex: - All integers are
rational: Ex: 4=y.
I
SETS
AsetIsonycollecllon-finiteorinfinite--<lfthingscoiledmembersor
elements.To denoteaset, weenclosetheelementsin braces.
Ex: N {L,2.3.... } IS the !infinitel set of natural numbers. The
notation(I ENmeansthataIs in N.ora"isanelementof"N.
DEFINITIONS
-Emptysetornull set: 0or (}: Thesetwithoutanyelements.
Beware: theset{O} is asetwith oneelement,O. Itis notthe
sameastheemptyset.
-Unionoftwo sets: AUB isthesetofallelementsthatarein
eitherset(orin both). Ex: IfA= (1,2,3) and B = (2,4,6),
thenAUB= (l,2,3,4,6).
PROPERTIES OF ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS
PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS
UNDER ADDITION AND
MULTIPLICATION
Real numberssatisfy11 properties:5 for addition,5 matching
ones for multiplication, and 1 that connects addition and
multiplication. Supposea
l
b, andcarerealnumbers.
Property Addition (+) Multiplicotion (x or .)
Commutotive a+b = b +a ab=ba.
Assoclotive (a +b) +c = a +(b +c) a(b c) = (a b) . c
ldenlities oisa real number. 1is a real number.
exist a+O=O+a=a a-l=l-a=a
ois theadditive 1isthemultiplkotive
identity. identity.
Inverses -aisa real number. If a i- 0, isa real
exist a+(-a) number.
=(-a)+a=O
Also, -(-a)= a. Also, t = a.
Closure a +bis a real number. a bisareal number.
LINEAR EQUATIONS INONE VARIABLE
Alinearequationin onevariableisanequationthat, aftersimplifying
andcollectingliketermsoneachside.will lookiikea7+b= corlike
IU" b ("J" +d. Each Side can Involve xs added to real numbers
andmuihplied by real numbersbut notmultiplied byotherrS
Ex: is a Iineor equation But
j" 9 = 3 and7(X +4) = 2 and Vi = 5 ore not linear
Linear eCJlUlh'ons in one vW'iablewill alwayshave(a) exactly
one real number solution, (b) rlO solutions, or (c) all real
numbersassolutions.
FINDING A UNIQUE SOLUTION
Ex: J(-t-3)TT=9-(x-
1. Getrid offractions outsideparentheses.
MultiplythroughbytheLCM ofthedenominators.
Ex: Multiplyby4 toget3(-t-3)+4x=36-4(x-
2.Simplify usingorderofoperations(PEMDAS).
Use the distributive property and combinelike terms on each
side. Remembertodistributeminussigns.
Ex: Distributetheleft-sideparentheses:
Distributetheright-sideparentheses; - 9 = 36 - 4x +
Combineliketermson therightside: - 9= - 4x.
3. Repeatasnecessarytogettheform ax+b= ex+d.
Multiplyby 2 toget ridoffractions: 5x- 18 = 77 - 8x.
4. Movevariabletermsandconstanttermstodifferentsides.
Usually, movevariablestothesidethathadthelargervariable
coefficienttobegin with. Equationshouldlooklikea::1: = b.
Add8xto bothsidestoget5x+8x- 18 = 77 or
13x-18=77.
Add18 tobothsidestoget 13x = 77 + 18 or13x= 95.
5. Divide bothsidesbythevariable'scoefficient.Stop if a = U.
Divideby Ijtogetx =
6. Checkthesolution by plugging intotheoriginalequation.
Does - 3) + = 9 - Yes! Hooray.
DETERMINING IF A UNIQUE
SOLUTION EXISTS
-The original equation has no solution if, after legal
transformations,thenewequationisfalse.
Ex: 2 = 3or3x- 7 = 2 +3x.
-All real numbers are solutions to the original equation if,
afterlegal transformations,thenewequation is anidentity.
Ex: 2x= 3x-.r.or1=1.
The real numberscanberepresented as points on the number
line. All rational numbersaTe real, butthereal numberlinehas
manypointsthatare"between"rationalnumbersandaTe called
ilTotional. Ex: 0,To, v'3- 9, 0.12112111211112.
The imaginary numbers aresquare rootsofnegative numbers.
They don'tappear on the real numberline and are written in
termsofi= FI.Ex: J=49is imaginaryandequaltoiV49or7i.
The complex numbers are all possible sums of real and
imaginarynumbers;theyarewrittenasa +bi. whereaandbare
real and i = FIis imaginary. All reals are complex (with
b = 0)andall imaginarynumbersarecomplex(witha= 0).
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra says that every
polynomial ofdegree n has exactly n complex roots (counting
multipleroots).
-Intersection oftwo sets: An B is theset ofall theelements
that are both in A and in B. Ex: If A = (1,2,3) and
B = [2,4,6), then AnB = (2). Two sets with no elements
in commonaredisjoint; theirintersectionis theemptyset.
-Complementofa set: Aistbesetofall elementsthatarenot
in A. Ex: Ifwe're talking about theset {l,2,3,4,5,6}, and
A= {1.2,3}, then A= {4,5.6}. 11 is always true that
An A= 0 andAUAiseverything.
-Subset: A C C: AisasubsetofC ifall theelementsofAare
alsoelementsofC.
Ex: If A={l,2,3} and C=(-2,0,1,2,3,4,5,8), then
AcC.
Distributive property a .(b +c) = a b+a c
(ofadditonover (b +c) .a = ba+ca
multiplication)
Therearealsotwo(derivative)propertieshavingtodowithzero.
Mullipllcotion byzero: a. 0 = 0 .a = O.
Zero productproperty:Ifab = 0 then a = 0 orb= 0(orboth).
INEQUALITY SYMBOLS
Sign Meaning Example
< lessthan 1<2and4 <56
> greaterthan 1>0and56 >4
i notequalto 0 i 3and-1i 1
lessthanorequalto 1 1and1 2
2: greaterthanorequalto 1 2: 1and3 2: - 29
The shorpend aiways pointstoward thesmoller number; theopen
endtowordthelarger.
PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY AND
INEQUALITY
Trichotomy: Foranytworea) numbersaandb, exactlyoneofthe
following istrue: a <b. a = b, ora >b.
Real numbers
1.25 -! 2
3 etc.
Irrationals
-1,-2,-3, ..
Integers
)'t2+3 --Whole Dwnbers .,
Naturalnumbers
etc.
Venn DiagramofNumberSystems
VENN DIAGRAMS
A Venn Diagram is a visual way to
representthe relationship between two
ormoresets. Eachsetisrepresentedby
a circle-like shape; elements ofthe set
are pictured inside it. Elements in an
overlapping section ofnYQ sets belong
to both sets (and are in the
intersection).
Countingelements:(size of Au B)=
(size of A) +(sizeof B) (size of A n D).
Otherproperties: Supposea, b, andcarereal numbers.
Property Equality (=) Inequality and
Reflexive a=a
Symmetric Ifa= b, thenb= a.
Transitive 11a <bandb <c,
thena =c. thena <c.
Additionand Ifa b, then 11a <b, then
subtraction a+c=b+cand a+c<b+cand
a-c=b-c. a-c<b-c.
Multiplicotion Ifa b, then Ifa <bandc>0,
anddivision ac= be and thenac <be
= (ifci 0). and %<
Ifa <bandc <0,
thenswitchthe
inequality:ac>be
and >
Any linearequationcan be simplified into theform ax= bfor
some a and b. Ifa i O. then x = (exactly one solution). If
a = 0butb i 0, thenthereisnosolution. Ifa = b = 0,thenall
real numbersaresolutions.
:C.ll,., II'jI 14f'.' il'.' :JII
Use the same procedure as for equalities, exceptflip the
inequality when mliltiplying or dividing by a negative
number. Ex: -x>5is equivalentto x <-5.
-The inequality may have no solution ifit reduces to an
impossiblestatement.Ex: : + 1>x +9reducesto1>9.
-Theinequality may have all real numbers as solutions ifit
reducestoastatementthatis alwaystrue.Ex: 5- x 2: 3 - x
reducesto5 3 andhasinfintelymanysolutions.
SolutionsgiventhereducedInequalityandthecondition:
a>O a<O a=O a=O a=O
b>O b<O b=O
none all none
none all all
x<* all none none ax<b
all none all a:r:5b

A!""\ll
A B
1 4
2
3 6 @
AuB
Venn Diagram
A={1.2,3},
B = (2,4.6).
AuB = {1,2,3,.,G}.
AnB={2}.
ABSOLUTE VA'IlUE>, - "
Theabsolutevalueofa numbern.denoted Inl,
is its distance from O. It is aiways nonnegative.
Thus 131 = 3andI-51 = 5. Also, 101 = O.
Formally,
l.el = { x x 0 .
-x If x <0
-Thedistance between aandbis the positive
valuela- bl =Ib - aI- Ex: 15 - I=3.
-Absolute value bars act like parentheses
whendeterminingtheorderofoperations.
PROPERTIES OF ABSOLUTE
VALUE
lal =Ibl meansa= bora = -b.
lal = 0 meansa= O.
If b 0, then
1"1 = bmeans"= bora= -b.
1"1 <bmeans-b<a<b.
1"1 >bmeans"<-bor" >b.
If b<0, then
lal ::; bisimpossible.
1"1 >bmeansacouldbeanything.
_
...
I: I J
-Changetheequation until theabsolutevalue
expressionisaloneononeside.
--Feefree10 foclorauposiIiYeconslonts.
Ex:12x - 41 =6isequivalenttoIx - 21 = 3To
factor out negative constants, use 1"1 = I-al.
Thus I-x- 11 = 4 is equivalent to
Ix + II =+4. (TIlesolutionsare {3,-5};the
equationIx + 11 = -4hasnosolutions.)
-Use the Properities of Absolute Value to
unraveltheabsolutevalueexpression.There
will be two equalities unless using the
propertythat1"1 =0 impliesa=O.
-Soiveeachoneseporately. Theremaybeno
solutions, 1 or 2 solutions, or aU real
numbersmaybesolutions.
-Checkspecific solutions by plugging them in
If thereareinfinitelymanysolutionsorno
solutions, check two numbers of large
magnitude.positiveand negative.
-Beespecially careful if the equation contains
variables both inside and outside the
absolute value bars. Keep track of which
equalities and inequalities hold true in
whichcase.
---Ex.1: 13x - 51 = 2x.If2x O. then
3x- 5 =2xor3x- 5 =-2x.Thefirstgives
x =5:thesecondgivesx =1.Bothwork.
-Ex. 2: 13x + 51 = ax. Ifax 0, thenwecan
rewrite this as 3x+ 5 =3x or
3x+ 5=-3x.Thefirst, 3x+ 5=3xgives
nosolutions.Thesecondseemstogivethe
solution x = - But wait! The equation
3x+ 5= -3x only holds if 3x 0, or
x o. So does notwork. Nosolution.
_
..
l:
Unraveling tricks:
lal <bistruewhenb 0 and -b<a<b.
lal >b is true when b<0 OR {b 0 and
a>b} OR{b 0anda<-b}.
Ex: IIOI+ II <7x+ 3 is eqUivalent to
7.e + 3 0 and -7x- 3<lOx + 1<7x+ 3.
Thus the equations 7x+ 3 0,
-7x- 3 <lOx + I. and IOI + I <7x+ 3
mustall hold. SolVing theequations. weseethat
GRAPHING ON THE REAL.: NUMBER LINE
The real number line is a pictorial
representation of the real numbers: every
numbercorrespondstoapoint.Solutionstoone
vorioble equations and (especiallyi inequalities
may begraphed on the real number line. The
idea is to shade in those ports of the line that
representsolutions.
Origin: A special point representing O. By
convention, points to the left of the origin
representnegativenumbers,andpointstothe
right of the origin represent positive
numbers.
Ray: Ahalf-line;everythingtotheleftorthe
right ofagiven point. Theendpoint may
ormaynotbe included.
Interval: A piece of the line; everything
between two endpoints. which mayor
maynotbeincluded.
Open (ray or interval): Endpoints not
included.
Closed(rayorinterval):Endpointsincluded.
GRAPHING SIMPLE
STATEMENTS
x =a: Filled-indotata.
oa
I
x a: Shaded closed ray: everything to the
rightofand includinga.
oa
I I
x ::; a: Shaded closed ray: everything to the
left ofand includinga.
o a
I I
x >'" Shaded open ray: everything to the
rightof(andnotincluding)a. Anopencircle
around the point a represents the not
includedendpoint.
oa
I
x <a: Shadedopen ray: everythingtotheleft
of(andnotincluding)a. Opencirclearounda.
oa
I ;
x '# a: Everything is shaded except for a..
aroundwhich thereisanopencircle.
oa
I :
a<x<b;a$x<b;a<x$b; a5x5b:
Awholerangeofvaluescanbesolutions.This
is representedby shading in aportionofthe
numberline:
Shadedintervalbetweena. andb.
Onlyworksifa <b.
Filled-in circle ifthe endpointis included,
opencircleiftheendpointis notincluded.
o a b
I:
a<x:O;b
THE CARTESIAN.'PLANE
TheCartesianlorcoordinatelplaneisa method
for giving a nometo each point In the planeon
the basis of how for it is from two special
perpendicularlines. calledaxes.
TERMINOLOGY OF THE
CARTESIAN PLANE
x-axis: Usually, the horizontal axis of the
coordinate plane. Positive distances are
measuredtotheright; negative.totheleft.
y-axis: Usually, the vertical axis of the
coordinate plane. Positive distances are
measuredup; negative.down.
Origin: {O,0),thepointofintersectionofthe
x-axisandthey-axis.
Quadrants:Thefourregionsoftheplanecut
by the two axes. By convention, theyare
numberedcounterclock"wise startingwith
theupperright(seethediagramatright).
Point: Alocationon a plane identifiedby an
ordered pair of coordinates enclosed in
parentheses. The first coordinate is
measured along the x-a.xis; the second,
along the y-axis. Ex: The point (I.2) is 1
unit to the right and 2 units up from the
origin. Occasionally (rarely). the first
coordinate is called the abscissa; the
second,theordinate.
GRAPHING ABSOLUTE
VALUE STATEMENTS
Absolute value is distance. Ix - al = b means
that lhe distance between a and x Is b.
Thraughout. bmustbenon-negolive.
Ix - al =b: Thedistancefromatoxisb. Plot
twopoints: x =a+b, andx = 0 - b.
a-b 0 a a+b
I I I
b b
Ix - al <b; I.e - "I ::; b:
The distance from a to x is less than (no
more than) b; or x is closer than b to a.
Plottheinterval (openor closed)
a- b<x <,,+b(or"- b::; x ::; a+b.)
a-b 0 a a+b
Q I I :
'- .
b b
Ix- al <b lopenIntervolJ
Ix - al >b; Ix - al b:
Thedistancefrom atox is morethan (noless
than)b; orx isfurtherthanbawayfrom a. Plot
thedoublerays(openorclosed) x <a- band
x>,,+b(orx ::; a- bandx a+ b).
a-b 0 a a+b
I I I I
b b
Ix- al b
y-axHI
+
QuadrantIl QuadrantI
(a,b)
origin (0,0)
Quadrantill Quadrant1V
Cortes;anplanewtthQuadrantsI. II. 1ii,1V: point(a,b).
I -i,X> -tandx < Thefirstcondition
forcesthesecond.andthesolutionsareallx with
$ J: <

Trial and error: Unravel every absolute value
by replacing every lexp7<ssionl with
Find all solutions to the
associated equalities. Also. find all solutions
lhat the equation obtains by replacing the
absolute value with O. All of these are
potential boundary points. Determine the
solution intervals by testing a pointin every
intervalandeveryboundarypoint.Thepoint
x = 0isoftengoodtotest.
Ifssimplesttokeeptrackof yourinformation
bygraphingeverythingontherealnumberline.
Ex: IlOx + 11 <7x+ 3.
Solve the three equntions lOx + I = 7I+ 3.
-lOx-l=7x+3. and 7x+3=0 to find
potentinl boundary points. The three points are.
not surprisingly. - At, and - Testing the
three boundarypOints and a point from eachof
thefourintervalsgivesthesolution - $ x <
..
OTHER COMPOUNO
INEQUALITIES
Intersection:InequalitiesjoinedbyAND. Both
(orall) oftheinequalitiesmusttrue.
Ex: Ix- II <4 is really x >-3AND x <5.
Equivalently,itis {x: x >-3}n{x: x <5}.
Thegraphistheintersectionofthegraphsof
both inequalities. Shade the portions that
would be shaded by both if graphed
independently.
Union: InequalitiesjoinedbyOR. Atleastone
oftheinequalitiesmustbetrue.
Ex: Ix - 11 >4 is really x <-3 OR x >5.
Equivalently,it is{x, x <-3}U{x :x >5}.
The graph is theunion ofthe graphsofthe
individual inequalities. Shade the portions
thatwouldbeshadedbyeitherone(orboth)
ifgraphedindependently.
-Endpoints may disappear. Ex: x >5 OR
x 6justmeansthatx >5. Thepoint6is
nolongeranendpoint.
-4 0 2 6
I I I , I I I I [ I
Ix- 41 :0; 2 AND x i'2.5
IF YOU CAN DETERMINE
ALL POTENTIAL
ENDPOINTS...
Plot the points and test all the Intervals one by
one by plugging a sample point into the
equation. Also test all endpoints to determine if
they're included. see exampie in Soiving
InequalitieswithAbsoluleVolue, above.
Sign () of the x- and y-coordinates in the
four quadrants:
III IV
x
+ +
y---+---+--
LINES IN THE CARTESIAN
PLANE
on
..
i
CONTINUEDON OTHER SIDE
I
THE CARTESIAN PLANE (CONTINUED)
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0
is sri
8 5ro &
a measure ofhow fast the line moves "up"
for every bit that it moves "over" Oeft or
right). If(a, b) and (c.d) aretwo points on
theline,thentheslopeis
change in y d- b
changein x = C - fl,'
-Anypairofpointsonastraightlinewillgive
thesameslopevalue.
-HorizontollineshaveslopeO.
-Theslopeofavertical line is undefined;it
is"infinitelylarge,"
-Linesthatgo"upright" and"downleft"
(endingin IandIII)havepositiveslope.
-Linesthatgo"upleft"and"downright"
(endinginIIandIV)havenegativeslope.
-Parallellineshavethesameslope.
-Theslopesofperpendicularlinesare
negative reciprocals of each other: iftwo
linesofslopeffil and7112 areperpendicular,
then mtm2 =-1andm2 =
GRAPHING LINEAR EQUATIONS
Alinearequationin twovariables(soyx andyl
canbe monipuloted-<Jfferall thex-Iermsandy-
termsandconstonltermsarehavebeengrouped
together-intotheform Ax+By= C.Thegraph
oftheequalionisa straightlinethencethenamel.
-Usingtheslopetograph: Plotonepointof
theline.Iftheslopeisexpressedasaratio
ofsmallwholenumbers;.keep plotting
pointsf' upandsoverfrom theprevious
point until you have enough to draw the
line.
-findingintercepts: To find thev-intercept,
set x = 0 and solve for y. To find the x-
intercept,sety = 0andsolve forx.
A linear equation in fwo variabies (soy
ax+by= c, with a ond enol bofh zerol has
infinitelymanyordered poir(x, y) solutions-reol
valuesofxandy thatmakeIheequationtrue.Two
simultaneouslinearequationsintwovariableswill
have:
-Exactly one solution if their graphs
intersect-themostcommonscenario.
-No solutions if the graphs of the two
equationsareparallel.
-Infinitely many solutions if their graphs
coincide.
SOLVING BY GRAPHING:
TWO VARIABLES
Graph both equations on thesame Cartesian
plane.Theintersectionofthegraphgives the
simultaneoussolutions. (Since pointsoneach
graph correspond to solutions to the
appropriateequation, points on both graphs
aresolutionstobothequations.)
-Sometimes, the exact solution can be
determined from the graph; other times
the graph gives an estimate only. Plug in
andcheck.
-Ifthe lines intersect in exactly one point
(mostcases),theintersectionis theunique
solutiontothesystem.
, 1x+4
x
exoclly onesolution
-4
- If the lines are parallel, they do not
intersect; the system has no solutions.
Parallel lines have the same slope; ifthe
slope is not the same, the lines will
intersect.
Rough directionoflineswith slopem:
1:::: lL l=
0<711<1 711>1 m=Q
t::: II Ll
-1<711 <0 m<-1 mundefined
x-Intercept:Thex-coordinateofthepoint
wherealinecrossesthex-axis.The x-
interceptofalinethatcrossesthex-axis
at(a,O) isa. Horizontallineshave nox-
intercept.
r-Inlercept: The y-coordinate of the point
where a line crosses the y-axis. The y.
interceptofalinethatcrossesthey-axisat
(0. b) isb. Verticallineshavenov-intercept.
SLOPE-INTERCEPT FORM:
V = mx + b
One ofthe easiest-to-graph forms ofa linear
equation.
711 is theslope.
b is the y-intercept. (0,b) is a point on the
line.
POINT-SLOPE FORM:
V - k =mix- h]
ANY OTHER FORM
(h, k) isa pointontheline.
711 is theslope.
Ifyouaresurethatanequationislinear,butit
isn'tin aniceform, findacoupleofsolutions.
Plot those points. Connect them with a
straightline. Done.
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
y
Ex:{ x - 4y= 1
2x-11=2y
-4
x
Using thefirst equationto solvefor y in lermsofx
gives y = t(x-1). Plugging in 10 the second
equation gives 2.T -11= 2O(x- 1). SolVing
for x gives x = 7. Plugging in for y gives
y = HI- 1) = Checkthat works.
nosolutions -4
Express both equations in the same form.
= cworkswell.
-Ifthe lines coincide, there are infinitely
many solutions. Effectively, the two 1
equationsconveythesameinformation. '
y 3
'2 2
y
-4
infinitely many
solutions
.v =3
x
-Useone equation to solvefor onevariable
(say, y) in termsoftheother(x): isolatey
ononesideoftheequation.
-Plug the expression for y into the other
equation.
-Solve the resulting one-variable linear
equationforx.
-Ifthereisnosolutiontothisnewequation,
therearenosolutionstothesystem.
-Ifall real numbers aresolutionstothe
newequation,thereareinfinitelymany
solutions; the two equations are
dependent.
-Solvefor ybypluggingthex-valueintothe
expressionfor y in termsofx.
-Checkthatthesolutionworksbypluggingit
intotheoriginalequations.
FINDING THE EQUATION OF
A LINE
Any line in the Cartesian plane represents
some linear relationship between x and y
values. The relationship always can be
expressed as Ax+By= C for some rea]
numbers A, B, C. The coordinates of every
pointonthelinewill satisfytheequation.
Ahorizontallineatheightbhasequationy = b.
Avertical linewithx-intercepta has
equationx = Cl.
Given slope711 andv-interceptb:
Equation: y = 711x +b.
Standardform:711x - y =-b.
Given slope711 andany point (xo,Yo):
Equation:y - Yo = 711(x - xo).
Stondardform:711x - y =711xo - Yo.
Alternatively, write down Yo =mxo +band
solve for b= Yo - 711xo to get the slope-
interceptform.
STANDARD FORM:
Ax + Bx = C
less thinking: Solve for y and put the
equationintoslope-interceptform.
lesswork: Find the x- and the y-intercepts.
Plotthemandconnecttheline.
Slope:
v-intercept: i.
x-intercept:
ax+by
Look for ways to add or subtract the
equationstoeliminateoneofthevariables.
-Ifthe coefficients on avariable in thetwo
equations are the same, subtract the
equations.
-Ifthe coefficients on a variable inthe two
equations differ by a sign, add the
equations.
-Ifone of the coefficients on one of the
variables(say,x)inoneoftheequationsis
1, multiply that whole equation bythe x-
coefficient in the otherequation; subtract
thetwoequations.
-If no simple combination is obvious,
simplypickavariable(say,x). Multiplythe
first equation by the x-coefficient of the
second equation, multiply the second
equation by the x-coefficient of the first
equation,and subtracttheequations.
If allwentwell,thesumordifferenceequation
is in one variable (and easy to solve if the
original equations had been in ax+by= c
fonn). Solveit.
-Ifbyeliminatingonevariable, theotheris
eliminated too, then there is no unique
solution to the system. Ifthere are no
solutions to the sum (or difference)
equation, there is no solution to the
system.If all real numbersaresolutionsto
thesum(ordifference) equation, thenthe
two original equations are dependent and
expressthesamerelationshipbetweenthe
variables; there are infinitely many
solutionstothesystem.
Given fwo points (x" ydand (X" y,):
Findtheslope111 =
Equation:
Y-YI =m(x-xd=
y - y,= 711(x - x,).
Given slope711 andx-intercepta:
Equation:x = !!; +a.
Givenx-interceptaand v-interceptb:
Equation: ;- +f= l.
Given a point on the line and Ihe equation of a
porallelline:
Find theslope oftheparallelline(seeGraphing
LinearEquations).The slope of theoriginallineis
thesame. Usepoint-slopefonn.
Given a point on the line and Ihe equation of a
perpendicularline:
Find the slope 7110 ofthe perpendicularline.
The slope of the original line is -;;!o. Use
point-slopeform.
y
2- 0 2
slape=
0-(-5) 5
x
5y- 2x =10
or
y =
5
-Plugthesolved-forvariableintooneofthe
original equations to solve for the other
variable.
Ex.{ = 1 x -4y
. 2x-ll=2y
X - 4y= 1
Rewriteto get
{
2x_ 2y= 11
The x-coefficient in the first equallon is I, so we
multiplythefirst equationby210get2x- 8y= 2,
and subtract this equation from Ihe ariginal
secondequationto get:
(2- 2)x+(-2- (-8))y= 11 - 2 or 6y = 9,
whichgivesy = asbefore.
CRAMER'S RULE
Thesolutionto thesimultaneousequations

aX+by=e ad-be
{ ex+dy= f isgivenby
- !l.=.E!
Y- (ul-be
ifad- be ,.o.
j: I r
l
1:J. Ii
There is a decent chance thol a system of Iineor
equalions hasa unique solution only if there are
asmonyequationsasvariables.
-Ifthereare too manyequations, then the
conditions are likely to be too restrictive,
resulting in no solutions. (This is ollly
actually true if the equations are
"independent"-each new equation
provides new information about the
relationshipofthevariables.)
-Ifthere are too few equations, then there
willbetoofew restrictions;iftheequations
are not contradictory, there will be
infinitelymanysolutions.
-Alloftheabove methodscan,intheory,he
used to solve systems of more than two
linearequations.Inpractice,graphingonly
works in two dimensions. It's too hard to
visualizeplanesinspace.
-Substitutionworksfine forthreevariables;
it becomes cumbersome with more
variables.
-Addingorsubtractingequations(orrather,
arraysofcoefficientscalledmatrices)isthe
methodthatis usedforlargesystems.
-----
EXPONENTS AND POWERS
Exponential notation is shorthand for repeated
multiplication:
33=3' and (-2y)(-2y)(-2y) = (-2y)'.
In the notation a'l, a. is the base, and11 is the
exponent.Thewholeexpressionis"a tothenth
power,"orthe"nthpowerof a, or,simply,"a to
then."
a
2
is"u squared;"a
3
isun cubed."
(-a)" isnotnecessarilythesameas -(a").
Ex: (-4)'= 16, whereas-(4')= -16.
Followingtheorderofoperationrules,
-a"=-(a").

Productofpowers: oman = a
m
+
n
Ifthe bases are the same, then to multiply,
simplyaddtheirexponents.Ex: 2
3
. 2
8
= . 2
11
am
m n
Quotientofpowers: = a -
If thebasesoftwopowersarethesame,thento
divide,subtracttheirexponents.
Exponentiation powers:(am)" =
Toraisea powertoapower,multiplye.xponents.
'ROOTS AND RADICALS
Taking roots undoes raising to powers: ?'8= 2 because 2'= 8.
Theexpression yI(i reads<lthe nthrootofa.
-Theradicalistherootsign v.
-Theexpression under the radical sign is called the radicand.
Sometimes,itisalsoreferredtoastheradical.
-Thenumbern is the index. Itis usuallydroppedfor square
roots:..;o.=
-Inradical notation,n isalwaysan integer.
-Whenn isevenanda. ispositive,wehavetwochoicesforthe
nth root. In such cases, we agree that the expression va
alwaysreferstothepositive,orprincipal,root. Ex: Although
3'= (-3)'= 9, weknowthat19= 3.
SIMPLIFYING SQUARE ROOTS
Asquoreroot expressionisconsideredsimplified if the radical has
norepeatedfactors. Use therule M = alb.
-Factortheradicandandmoveanyfactorthatappearstwice
outsideofthesquarerootsign.
Ex: v'6ii = = = 2115.
-Ifthe radicand contains a variable expression, don't lose
heart: do the exact same thing. Use ..;xr;= x
n
and
JX
2n
+
1
= x".ji.
Ex: I32X'= I'i'X'= )(4x
3
)'2x= 4x'J2X.
POLYNOMIALS
Polynomialsareexpressionsobtained byadding.
subtracting,andmultiplying realnumbersandone
or several variables. Usually the variables are
arrangedalphabetically.
- Expressionsconnectedby+ or- signsare
calledterms.Ex: Thepolynomial2x
3
y - 7x
hastwoterms.
-ThecoeIficient ofa term is the real number
(non-variable)part.
-Twoterms are sometimescalled liketerms
ifthepowerofeachvariableinthetermsis
thesame.Ex: 7yGx andyxy5 areliketerms.
2x
8
and 16xy7 are not. Like terms can be
addedorsubtractedintoasingleterm.
-Thedegreeofatermisthesumofthepowers
of each variable in the term. Ex: 2x' and
16:cy' zbothhavedegreeeight.
5
....
...
...:
..
W0RD PROBLEMS Few nun'' on t1lCQsw'empnts, UnIls, and percent,,"we the Spal'kCh"rt011 A1ath Basic."'.
The systematic way to salve word prablems is to
convertthemto equations.
1. Choose Y<IiabIes. Choose wisely. Whatever
youareaskedtofindusuallymeritsavariable.
2.Rewrite the statements given in the
problemas equationsusingyourvariables.
Use common sense: more, fewer, sum,
total,differencemeanwhatyouwantthem
to mean.Commontriggerwordsinclude:
Of: Frequentlymeansmultiplication.Ex: "Half
oftheflowersareblue"meansthatif thereare
cflowers,thenthereare blueflowers.
Percent 1%1: Divide hy 100. Ex: "12% ofthe
flowers had withered" means that
flowerswerewithered.
3.Solvethe equation(s) to find the desired
quantity.
4.Check thatthe answermake sense. Ifthe
answeris girlsintheparkor-3shoesin
a closet, eitheryou made a computational
mistakeortheproblemhasnosolution.
-Thedegreeofapolynomialisthehighestdegree of
anyofitsterms.
-Ina polynomialinonevariable,thetermwith
thehighestdegree is called theIeacing1lllrm,
anditscoefficientistheIeacingcoeIficient.
CLASSIFICATION OF
POLYNOMIALS
By degree:Ex: 2x
5
y - 4x
3
y3 + 5and4y 5 - 16y6
arebothsixth-degreepolynomials.
Specialnamesfor polynomialsinonevariable:
Bydegree: By numberofterms:
degree1: linear 1term:monomial
degree2: quadratic 2terms: binomial
degree3: cubic 3terms:trinomial
degree4: quartic
degree5: quintic
Powerofa product:(ab)" = a"b"
(
a)" a"
Quotierrtofa product: Ii = t;;
Exponentiation distributes over multiplication and
division, but not over addition or subtraction. Ex:
(2xy)' = 4x'y',but(2+x+y)''"4+x'+y'.
Zeroth power: a
O
= 1
To be consistent with all the other exponent
rules, we set a
O
=1 unless a= O. The
expression00 is undefined.
ROOT RULES
We con view roots as powerswith fractional exponents; thus roots
satisfy thesomepropertiesthatpowersdo.
Radical Rule Summary
Rule Radicals Exponents
Rootofa product (ab)" = a"b"
Rootofa quotient
Rootofa root I{?a=
------'---
Productofroots vav'b=
Rootofa power = \fa
Converting betweennotation = (yIa)on = a. t;t
SIMPLIFYING HIGHERPOWEREO
RADICALS
Annth rootexpressionissimplifiedif:
-Theradicand is notdivisible byanynth power. Factor the
radicandanduse yI(;Tib = av'b asforsquareroots.
-Theradicandisnota perfectmthpowerforanym thatis a
factorofn. Use = 'if<i. Ex: = W = W.
-Two unlike roots may be joined together. Use
-Onlyliketermscanbe addedorsubtracted
togetherintooneterm:
Ex: 3x
3
y - 5xyx
2
= _2x
3
y.
-When subtractinga polynomial, it maybe
easiest to flip all the signs and add it
instead.
1&11111 jI@ ISj ::t
l
] f4 !-;
The key is to muifiply every term by every term,
term by term. The number of terms in the
(unsimplified) product is the product of the
numbersoftermsinthetwopolynomials.
-Multiplying a monomial by any other
polynomial: Distribute and multiply each
RATE PROBLEMS
Rate problemsoften Involve speed, distance, and
time. Theseoreoftengoodvariablescandidates.
Equationsto use:
(distance) = (speed) x (time)
(speed) =
time=disllU1Nl

Checktho1theunitsondistanceandtimecorrespond
totheunilsonspeed.Convertnnecessary:
Time:
1min= 60s; 1h = 60min=3,6005
Dis1ance: 1ft = 12in; 1yd = 3ft= 36i11
1mi= 1. 760yd= 5.280ft
Metricdis1ance:
1m =100em;1km =lOOOm
] in :::::::: 2.54em;1ill::::::: 3.28ft; 1mi ::::::: 1.61km
Averagespeed =
Averagespeedis not theaverageofspeedsused
over equal distances, irs the overage of speeds
usedoverequaltimeintervals.
Ex: Supercar travels at 60mi/bfor 30minand at
90mi/h for the rest of its 45-mile trip. How long
doesthetrip toke?
-The first part of the journey takes
30minx 6O\::in = h. During this time,
Supercartravels60mi/hx Ii =30mi.
-The second part of the trip is
45mi - 30rni =15mi long. Supercar zips
throughthispartin = h.
-The total trip takes h + h = h, or
40min.
What is Supercor'soveragespeedforthetrip?
= = 67.5mi/h.
Thismayseemlow,butit'sright:Supercarhad
traveled at 60mi/h and at 90lUi/b, but only
one-fourthofthetotaljourneytimewasatthe
fasterspeed.
Negativepowers:a- n =..!..-
a"
Wedefinenegative powersasreciprocalsof
positivepowers. Thisworkswell with all other
rules. Ex: 2
3
.2-
3
= = 1.
Also, 2
3
. 2-'= 2
3
+( -3) = 2 = 1.
Fractional powers:a = if<i
This definition, too, works well with all other
rules.
vav'b= Then reduce: thefinal indexshouldbe
theLCM oftheoriginalindices.

-When in doubt, use v'a"'= (yJii)"' = a'li to convert to
fractional expqnentsandworkwiththem.
Ex: = = xix!= xl+!= xt! = x'ifX'i.
-You may lose sign information. Ex: V(-2)' = is
positive,but ?"=2isnegative.
'i
'
" fA' j:':W I'M" j.';_
Afractional expression is considered simplified only if thereore no
radicalsignsinthedenominator. Usethetherule*'= iji.
1. If thereareradicalsinthedenominator,combinethem
intooneradicalexpression Vd.
2.Multiplythe fraction by"acleverfarm of1:" $.This
will leave a factor of d in the denominator and,
effectively, pulltheradicalupintothenumerator.
3.Simplify the radical in the numeratorand reduce the
fractionifnecessary.
Ex = ..,I"j] = = ,.,/li= v'I5
.J'iO 7iO 7iO 10 10
-Ifthe simplified radical in the denominator is an nth
root if<J, usetheidentity-w. = Inatherwords,
thecleverfarmof1thistimeis
Ex: i4= iJ!1l= =
"Simplified"farmisnatnecessarilysimpler.
termofthepolynomialbythemonomial.
-Multiplyingtwobinomials:Multiplyeachterm
of the first by each term of the second:
(a +b)(c +d) = (tc +be +ad +bd.
-MNEMONIC: FOIl: Multiply the two First
terms, the two Outside terms, the two
Insideterms,andthetwoLastterms.
-Commonproducts:
(a +b)' = a'+2ab+b'
(a - b)' = a'- 2ab+b'
(a+b)(a- b) = a'- b'
-After multiplying, simplify by combining
liketerms.
TASK PROBLEMS
Ex: Sarah can point a house in four days, while
Justin can do if in five. How long will it takethem
workingtogether"
Theseproblemsaredisguisedrateproblems.If
Sarahpaintsahousein4. days,sheworksata
rateof houseperday. Justinworksata rate
ofkhouse perday. Working for x days, they
havetocompleteonehouse:

Simplifying, we get = I, or x =W:::::; 2.2
days. Thismakessense: twoSarahscandothe
house in 2 days; two Justins can do it in 2.5
days;aSarahandaJustinneedsomelengthof
timeinbetween.
I